RECORDING AND LG Code: AGR AHC3 M12 LO (1-3) LG (48 -50)

PRESENTING VETERINARY TTLM Code: AGR AHC3 TTLM12 0621V1

compiled by: Dr. Ferahadin S

DATA
DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 1
CONTENTS
LO #1- Record and organize data collection
LO #2- Present data in tables, charts and graphs
LO #3- Store and retrieve data

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 2

LO #1- RECORD AND ORGANIZE DATA COLLECTION
Content coverage and topics:
Preparing history record sheets
Recording data in format suitable for analysis and reporting
Checking data to identify transcription errors and atypical entries
Rectifying errors in data
Upon completion of this Learning Guide, you will be able to:
Prepare history record sheets.
Record data in format suitable for analysis and reporting
Check data to identify transcription errors and atypical entries
Rectify errors in data

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 3

INFORMATION SHEET 1- PREPARING HISTORY RECORD SHEETS
The primary objective of any animal health information (AHI) system is to collect,
manage and systematically analyze data in order to generate appropriate information
for various stakeholders along livestock food value chains.
These data may be used to support the decision-making process in relation to
diseases prevention, eradication or control, and may support the design, development
and management of surveillance programs.
A wide variety of disease drivers (e.g. increased intensification of livestock
production, global trade, animal movement and climate change) are facilitating the
emergence of new diseases and creating endemic problems.
Conversely, the evolution and availability of new technologies, such as mobile
devices, bioinformatics and geographical information systems, have transformed the
development of AHI systems into a dynamic process that is constantly renewed to
meet these challenges and the changing needs of users.

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∂Another objectives of an animal health information system (AHI systems) can be
used to fulfill several different objectives; in particular, facilitating the identification
and notification of animal diseases in accordance with legislation and the priorities
of veterinary services.
∂By collecting accurate data, AHI systems support the monitoring and management
of emerging and endemic diseases and the development of disease prevention and
control measures.
The four key objectives of AHI systems are:
1. Supporting official animal disease notification systems
2. Supporting the management of animal health emergency systems
3. Enhancing animal disease surveillance and early warning information systems
4. Supporting risk assessment

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1. Supporting official animal disease notification system
These systems focus on collecting outbreak data for subsequent notification to other
information systems, such as the OIE World Animal Health Information System
(WAHIS), in line with international obligations.
2. Supporting the management of animal health emergency systems
These systems provide information that facilitates rapid intervention in the event of
a disease outbreak. Examples of utilities provided by such systems include:
enabling online queries to animal identification and registration and traceability
systems to identify and retrieve data concerning connections between premises as a
result of animal movements;
facilitating epidemiological inquiries (tracing-back and tracing-forward
investigations) in cases of confirmed disease outbreaks;
defining buffer (e.g. protection and surveillance) zones around outbreaks; and
Providing a list of premises within such zones using web-based geographical
information system (GIS) tools.

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3. Enhancing animal disease surveillance and early warning information systems
These systems combine data derived from:
animal identification and registration systems
animal traceability systems
 control and surveillance activities (e.g. vaccination data, herds or animals sampled, and
laboratory testing results); and
Other relevant systems, such as those targeting the incidence of human cases of
zoonoses or the use of antimicrobials in food-producing animals.
Surveillance and early warning information systems are essential tools for assessing the
health status of animal populations; monitoring and improving existing surveillance
activities; and supporting decision-makers in planning prevention, control or
eradication strategies and framing zoning or compartmentalization policies.
Surveillance information systems may also be used to demonstrate the absence of
specific diseases in order to acquire disease-free status, in accordance with the
requirements of competent institutions.

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4. Supporting risk assessment
This involves the collection of a wide range of data to facilitate a number of key
actions, including:
quantifying disease prevalence and incidence
estimating the probability of spread of infection through the animal trade (disease
import risk analysis) and other means (e.g. vector dissemination for vector-borne
diseases)
Identifying the presence of risk factors (summer grazing on common pastures, use of
potentially contaminated common feed, etc.) and
 Estimating the magnitude of possible consequences for animal or human (in the
case of zoonoses) populations exposed to an infectious agent.

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1.2. Input animal health data
One important component of any AHI system is the collection and maintenance of
herd health management data, which may be used to benefit diseased animals, as
well as the herd as a whole.
The EMPRES Global Animal Disease Information System (EMPRES-i) is an
example of an AHI system. EMPRES-i is a web-based application that has been
designed to support veterinary services and organizations by facilitating the
collation, analysis and accessibility of animal disease information.
It integrates several data layers, including livestock density and environmental
variables from other FAO systems, such as the Global Livestock Production and
Health Atlas (GLiPHA), and data on genetic characterization of pathogens, such as
those deriveing from the Openflu database. The Animal data types include:

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oThe Animal data types include:

clinical and related health data Vaccination and treatment data

data on real-time animal movement Heard health management
diagnostic laboratory Abattoir and AI records
Level of client service which can be Owner information
provided
Disease epidemiological patterns and
Internal policies, procedures and
practices Other indicator or risk-factor data such as
climatic and environmental data.
Staff levels and structures
Laboratory and clinical findings

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1.2.1. Data on disease cases and outbreaks
The collection of data on the occurrence of animal diseases requires a clear and
unambiguous “case definition” for each disease.
Specific rules and diagnostic protocols have to be defined for case confirmations,
taking into account the characteristics of the diagnostic tests.
In some cases, a correct case definition may be difficult to obtain, particularly for
asymptomatic infections in animals (e.g. emergent diseases such as Influenza A
infection in multiple species, Middle East respiratory syndrome or Crimea Congo
hemorrhagic fever) or when wildlife is involved.
In addition, case definition may be determined by the objectives of the surveillance
system.
For example, with vector-borne zoonotic diseases (e.g. Rift Valley fever, West Nile
or Japanese encephalitis), where the main aim is early detection of any circulating
virus for prompt institution of public health protection measures, even the detection
of viral genome by RT-PCR on mosquito pools may be included in the case
definition.
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For each suspected and confirmed case of disease the minimum data elements that
must be collected are as follows:
the disease in question (sometimes identification of the strain or subtype/serotype
can be fundamental)
the location of the disease outbreak (the ID code of premises involved, with related
geographic coordinates)
the species of animals affected (demographic data on infected premises)
the time and date on which the disease first occurred (date of first clinical signs, date
of first suspicion and date of confirmation)
how the infection was detected and what initially raised suspicion
the control measures put in place to limit spread of the disease; and
the results of epidemiological investigations to identify the origin of the infection
and any other premises that may have been exposed.

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Table 1: Examples of data collection sheet for disease out break

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1.2.2. Data and Information on Laboratory results
The results of laboratory investigations are an essential part of any AHI system.
Inclusion of these data requires the standardization of all information, including the
type of laboratory methods used and the format of results (qualitative versus
quantitative values and the definition of “negative” cases).
Particular attention should be paid when applying the concept of “sample”.
The inclusion of laboratory results could imply the development of an interface
between the AHI system and one or more pre-existing laboratory information
management systems (LIMS) where laboratory results are stored.

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Table 2: Examples of data collection sheet for laboratory

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1.2.3. Vaccination data
Vaccination is one of the main control measures for many animal diseases.
Therefore, the collection of data on vaccination activity may be essential for defining
the health status of an animal population. The minimum data that should be recorded
is the number of vaccinated animals within a given time period (year, month, week,
etc.) and the epidemiological unit of concern (ideally each premises).
Table 3: Examples of data collection sheet for vaccination
SN0 Date Address Species Breed sex season vaccine No of vaccinated remark
animals

1                  

2                  

3                  

4                  

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1.2.4. Data and Information on Zoonotic Diseases
In the case of zoonoses, the efficacy of veterinary actions can be measured primarily on the basis of
their impact on public health. The ability to measure the returns on investments made for the
containment and management of such zoonotic diseases depends on the availability of data and
information on:
the incidence and prevalence of zoonotic diseases by livestock production system (e.g. intensive vs.
semi-intensive vs. extensive);
 the use of antibiotics in livestock, disaggregated by production system;
 the incidence and prevalence of zoonotic diseases in humans, by category of people (e.g. farmers vs.
market operators vs. consumers);
 the use of antibiotics and antimicrobial resistance in humans, by category of people;
the reduction in the quantity and value of livestock production due to zoonoses, for example because
of death and morbidity in animals; the reduction in labour productivity
the causes of zoonotic disease emergence and spread, which include inadequate vaccination
coverage, inefficient biosecurity and biosafety measures, and lack of advocacy.
 the feasibility – in terms of financial resources and technical competencies – of possible
interventions to tackle the root causes of the emergence and spread of zoonoses and of livestock-
driven AMR.

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This information helps identify actionable interventions and estimate their different
returns, i.e. to allocate available resources to maximize the benefits for society.
Table 4: Example of Data collection sheet for zoonotic diseases

SN0 Date Address Species Breed Age sex Sign Suspected disease remark

1                  

2                  

3                  

4                  

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Level of client service data and owner information
The assessment study should also identify stakeholders willing to participate in the animal recording
system. Their participation will become compulsory in the case of mandatory animal identification and
registration, traceability and/or animal health information systems.
oSome of the following stakeholders may be included:
livestock keepers or breeders and/or their associations;
officers of animal health and production departments of the Ministry of Agriculture and/or Livestock
and their decentralized offices;
field veterinarians, livestock extension staff, artificial insemination service providers or authorized field
agents;
laboratory staff for testing disease, feed, milk, etc.;
livestock market staff;
hauliers/livestock traders;
distributors and retailers; and
Abattoir and processing plant staff. In addition, assessment of the literacy rate among keepers should be
extended to some of the above-mentioned stakeholders; for example, market and processing plant staff.

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Owner (client) record sheet example
Case no._________
Date: ____/____/_____
I. Owner /client personal data:
Owner name_________________Address____________Kebele______
Mobile no._______________Resident_________________phone______________
house no.________________
Abattoir data
Abattoir data includes all activities at lairage, abattoir, and slaughter area at all. It
starts from ant mortem examination and ends with post mortem judgment. Data of
ant mortems are animal data, owners’ data, health status, identification, origin of
animals, date and time of ant mortem examination, and judgment given. Post mortem
information is findings of post mortem examination of carcass and offal, and types
of decision at end of examination.

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Table 5: Example of Data collection sheet for ant mortem examination
Data for ant mortem examination Remark
Date
Address of butchers
Species of animal
Breed of animal
Animal identification
Sex of animals
Diagnoses methods
Judgments

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Artificial insemination records
Artificial insemination technicians collect data on artificial insemination, pregnancy
diagnosis and calving. They may also register newborn calves and record the
parentage. This includes, estrus detected, date and time of insemination, inseminated
animal data, address of animal owners and inseminator, and type of semen used.
Table 7: Example of Data collection sheet for Artificial insemination
Date_______________________________________________________________
Address of animal owners_______________________________________________
Species of animal_______________________________________________________
Breed of animal_________________________________________________________
Age__________________________________________________________________
Time of estrus__________________________________________________________
Signs of estrus observed__________________________________________________
Semen (breeding bull )__________________________________________________
Date of insemination_____________________________________________________
Method used to check pregnancy ___________________________________________

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Disease epidemiological patterns data
Epidemiological data on patterns of disease is essential in animal information system. Disease
in a population depends on three factors.
Individual factors: individual susceptibility (genetic, age, sex, breed, species, etc.) .
Temporal factors: how disease frequencies change over time? Other factors temporally
associated with those changes are Climatic influences, season
Spatial factors: where is the disease specially common or rare? The geographical distribution of
a disease may indicate an association with local geographical, management or ecological
factors. It is the time of occurrence of a disease in a population of animals. Disease does not
occur randomly over time but its onset follows one of three temporal patterns.
•sporadic
•endemic
•epidemic and
•pandemic disease

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Sporadic disease data
Sporadic disease is cases of disease may occur sporadically, irregularly and in a haphazard fashion. The cases do
not seem to be associated with any other identifiable factors nor with each other.
 
Endemic disease data
It is the usual and constant occurrence of a disease in a population. Cases may occur regularly and virtually at low
levels. This implies, other interrelated factors influencing this pattern should happen in a similar regular fashion. In
recording endemic occurrence of a disease, we should specify the population affected and the site (location).
 
Epidemic disease data
Epidemic disease refers to a sudden, unpredictable and unusual increase in the number of cases of a disease in a
population beyond the expected endemic (usual) frequency. Disease acquired by many hosts in a given area in a
short period of time it is usually indicated by an exponential rise in the number of cases in time and, followed by a
subsequent decline in the number of cases as the number of susceptible animals are exhausted.
 
Pandemic disease data
Pandemic disease is a wide spread epidemic that may involve many countries and also affects a large proportion of
the population. It is worldwide epidemic. A disease is not a pandemic simply because it kills lots of people or
animals or occurs in a lot of places, it has to be infectious as well.

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Herd Health management
This includes important information of managements at herd level, not at individual
level. This incorporates existing measures used as management of health problems
like prevention and control. Periodic evaluation of veterinary actions is essential for
reviewing and modifying such actions.

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Veterinary data information Sources
Data can originate from different sources (example: veterinarians, technicians, keepers, and staff
of slaughter houses, abattoirs or laboratories, primary sources and secondary sources).
Information from any source is gathered through:
•Conversation with Colleague
•Conference/Seminar Notes
•Journal
•Google Search
•Conversation with Specialist
•Information Software on Computer
•VIN/Chat Room
•Coursework (Masters/Fellowship/ Certificate/ Diploma)
•Online Database i.e. Pubmed

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Designing the question to prepare questioners data sheet
When drafting questions, you must keep in mind who is responding, whether or not
the data are readily available, the response burden (i.e the length and complexity of
the questionnaire), the complexity, confidentiality and sensitivity of the data being
collected, the reliability of the data (i.e validity of question), whether the interviewer
or respondent might find any of the topics embarrassing, and ultimately how the data
will be processed (coding and computer entry).
Responding to a question usually involves four distinct processes: understanding the
question, retrieval of information (from memory or records), thinking and/or making
a judgment if the question is at all subjective, and communicating the answer
(written or verbal). All aspects must be considered for each question.

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Once a draft of a question is prepared, ask yourself:
1. Will the respondent understand this question? (The question must be clearly worded
in a non-technical manner.)
2. If the question deals with factual information will the respondent know the answer to
the question or have to seek out additional information to be able to answer it? (If
additional information is required, the respondent might skip the question or fabricate an
answer.)
3. Does answering the question involve a subjective decision? (If it does, is there any
way to make it less subjective?) If the question deals with opinions or beliefs, it is bound
to be subjective in nature. Special care will be required in the design of these questions
to ensure they elicit the desired information.
4. Are the possible responses clear with an appropriate method of recording the
response?
 
Questions can be classified as open (if there are no restrictions on the type of response
expected) or closed (if the response has to be selected from a pre-set list of answers).
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Open question
In general, open questions (also referred to as open-ended questions) are more often applicable to
qualitative than quantitative research because they generate information that might not be applicable
for standard statistical analyses. By their nature, open questions allow the respondent to express their
opinion. Sometimes we might attach a 'comments' section on a closed question for this purpose.
Closed question
In designing closed questions (also called closed-ended questions), the researcher can choose from a
range of possible options. They include: checkIlst questions (i.e check all options that apply), two-
choice/multiple-choice questions, rating scale questions (ie rate the response on a defined scale), and
ranking questions (i.e rank the options in order of priority).
The advantages of closed questions are that they are generally easier for the respondent to answer
(while maintaining consistent responses) and it is easier to code the responses (prior to data entry).
However, closed questions are difficult to design and there is always a risk that closed questions might
either over simplify an issue or elicit answers where no knowledge or previous opinion exists.
Sometimes a closed question might request information in a format that is different from what a
respondent usuaIly uses (e.g you might ask for herd average milk production based on litres per cow
per day while the producer assesses milk production using average 305-day production values).

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Checklist question
A checklist question is similar to a multiple-choice question except that the respondent is asked to
check alI responses that apply (so they need not be mutualIy exclusive or jointly exhaustive). They are
equivalent to having a series of 'yes/no' questions for each category. Consequently, each option on the
list requires a separate variable in the database.
Two-choice/multiple-choice question
In two-choice/multiple-choice questions it is important to have categories that are mutually exclusive
(ie no overlap) and jointly exhaustive (ie cover aIl possibilities). The addition of a category of 'other -
please specify' (semi-open question) as the last choice can ensure that the options are jointly
exhaustive. However, if the question has been weIl designed, there should not be a lot of responders
using this option. It is recommended that the list of possible choices not exceed five in face-to-face or
telephone-interview questionnaires and 10 in mailed/intemet questionnaires. Multiple-choice question
example
1. Type of practice(choose one only)
a. Mixed
b. Small animal exclusively
c. Feline exclusively
d. Other(please specify)_____________________________________

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Rating question
Rating questions require the respondent to assign a value based on some pre-defined scale.
Responses might be ordinal, such as aLikert scale in which the respondent states their level
of agreement with a statement (eg strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree
and strongly disagree) or recorded on a more continuous numerical scale. Rating question
example
In your opinion, how severe would the pain be in dogs in the first 12 hours after each of the
following surgeries if no post-operative analgesics were given? Estimate the pain on a 10
points scale where 1 equals no pain at all and 10 equals the worst pain imaginable (circle
one number).
1. Major epidemic surgery 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 don’t know
2. Repair of ruptured cruciate 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 don’t know
3. Abdominal surgery 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 don’t know
4. Castration 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 don’t know
5. Dental surgery 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 don’t know
 
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Ranking question
Ranking format questions ask the respondent to order of the possible responses (or a
subset of responses) in some form of rank order. They are often difficult for
respondents to complete, especially if the list of choices is long because the
categories must be kept in their mind at once.
Ranking question example
Please rank the following as sources of your knowledge of recognition and control of
post-operative pain in dogs and cats (1=most important source, 6=least important
source).
1. Undergraduate veterinary school_______
2. Post-graduate training_________________
3. Journal articles______________
4. Continuing-education lectures/seminars_______________
5. Discussion with other veterinary practitioners_________________

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Wording the question
The wording used in questions has a major impact on the validity of the results from those questions. At all
times, bear in mind who the respondent is and what level of technical knowledge they have. For example,
'How many fatal cases of neonatal diarrhea occurred during the time period?' is a poorly worded question if
the respondent.
Animal History Sheet/ format example for questioners
Date____________________________________
Owners Name______________________________
Pets Name________________________________
Animal History
Does your pet live in an: Apartment House Backyard Farm
Does your pet go Camping Hunting Lake/Pond
Is your pet on any flea treatment? yes no Type:___________
Has your pet been Heartworm and on prevention? yes no Results:____________
Any other medications and/or supplements? yes no Type:_____________
Has your pet ever had a vaccine reaction yes no If yes, when?____________
What brand of food does your pet eat ___________ Quantity?_______________

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 Vet Use Only Normal Abnormal Not examined

1. Appearance      

2. BCS      

3. Ears      

4. Eyes      

5.Respiratory System      

6. Oral cavity, teeth      

7. L.N.      

Note___________________________________________________________

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Quiz 5%
Quiz I: Short Answer Questions
1. List down at least ten animal health data that require history record sheet.
2. Write Veterinary data information Sources
3. Write the four key objectives of AHI systems
4. What are methods used to gather Information from its sources?
 

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Information Sheet 2- Recording data in format suitable for analysis and reporting
Organizing data for analysis and reporting
Data that is not organized is referred to as raw data. When data is collected from a survey or
designed experiment, they must be organized into a manageable form.
The survey data collected from the field should be processed and analyzed as indicated in
the research plan.
Data processing primarily involves editing, coding, classification and tabulation of data, so
that it becomes amenable for data analysis.
All data must be entered into the animal health information system, regardless of the
method used on the farm (i.e. paper or electronic device).
As a general rule, the person who performed the veterinary activity that produced the data
should enter them into the system, as early as possible.
This reduces the risk of errors due to misinterpretation, which increases significantly if the
information is entered at a later date.
In the case of paper-based registration, once the national animal identification database is in
place, it is advisable to use forms that are prefilled with farm and animal identification data.

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Elements of an animal health information system
An AHI system should contain the data gathering, data storage and manipulation.
Data gathering
Most systems are based on the use of reporting forms to record and transmit data to local or
national centers for collation via paper, mobile devices, e-mails or the internet. Data are
collected using specific reporting forms. A simple reporting form can include:
Geographical information related to location (latitude/longitude) of premises and/or
epidemiological units, and delimitations of administrative units, if these do not exist in the
premises register.
temporal information related to the time at which the information was recorded, and at
which any health-related activities (e.g. administration of vaccinations) took place
epidemiological information on the species, farming system, number of animals at risk,
cases, deaths, etc
laboratory information, including samples, species, date of collection and date of results;
and
Action and control measures taken.
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Data storage and manipulation
AHI systems should be able to handle a large amount of data and information. Paper-
based systems are often inefficient and severely limited in the volume of information
they can process.
Computerized systems based on database management systems are more efficient,
and are recommended, even for use in developing countries, due to their ability to
store and effectively manage large amounts of data for processing.
Format suitable for data analysis and reporting
After collecting from its source, the data should enter in to format which is suitable
for analysis and reporting.
This simplifies data analysis and reporting. Many of these formats are soft wares like
SPSS and STATA in epidemiological data analysis for animal health data.

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Distributed field devices for capturing data and receiving information
The available technologies for capturing data at field level may be divided into the
following three groups:
1. Collecting data on paper and entering data through connected desktops/laptops.
The central server provides functionalities via web pages, allowing various
stakeholders to capture or display information, usually through a web portal that
grants personalized privileges and access to specified information;
2. Entering data offline through smartphones or tablets in a local database and
periodically synchronizing the local database with the central server; and
3. Enabling data exchange between the central server and other databases through
XML files or web services for real-time data exchange; for example, via simple
object access protocol (SOAP) or other interoperable technologies.

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1. Collecting data on paper and entering data via desktops/laptops to produce
operating reports
In this case, the fieldworker collects data on specified formats and dispatches them
to a nearby workstation, where data entry operators enter the data using a web-based
application into desktops/laptops connected to the central server.
This approach duplicates the work of data entry, and also increases errors, adds to
cost and causes delays. However, in many situations, this may be the only possible
option.
The web-based application provides various user interface (UI) forms to enter and
validate data.
It could also produce operational reports on desktops/laptops, which need to use
appropriate web browsers (e.g. Internet Explorer, Firefox and Chrome).

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2. Entering data offline via smartphones or tablets in a local database and synchronizing the
local database with the central server periodically
In this case, fieldworkers are provided with smartphones or tablets.
The smartphone is embedded with a custom designed client application, a local database and a
synchronization middleware.
The client application provides UI to enter and validate data and updates the local database. The
synchronization middleware synchronizes the local database with the central database via
wireless connectivity.
The smartphone uses any of the available mobile operating systems (OS), such as Google’s
Android, Apple’s iOS and Microsoft’s Windows phone.
When smartphones are used, data entry occurs only once, errors are rectified at the source and
data updating occurs (locally) without delay.
The central database is updated when the device is synchronized a process that can be automated.
Unlike the workstation approach, many fieldworkers enter the data using smartphones supplied to
them.
This means that numerous smartphones will have to be supplied and maintained. In addition, each
fieldworker will require a user ID.
DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 41
3. Data exchange between the central server and other databases through xMl
files or data web services (SoAP or equivalent)
The development of a fully integrated system is preferable for countries with
minimal prior experience in animal recording.
However, most countries already have several single or multipurpose IT systems
with corresponding databases in place.
In such cases, data exchange is possible between these databases and the central
server via XML file protocol or real-time technologies such as SOAP.
Another option is file transfers, which may be particularly useful for external
organizations not capable of implementing a web-based application.
In this case, the participating organization enters its data into a specified file and
transmits it electronically using internet broadband or virtual private network (VPN)
to the central server.
An application on the web-based server provides an FTP file service to transfer such
data.

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 42

Figure 1: Technical elements of the IT system

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 43

Data analysis
Data analysis is required to convert data into information, which is then used to assist animal
health decision-making. Data analysis may range from the simple calculation of totals and
rates (e.g. mortality, incidence and prevalence) to the determination of complicated statistical
associations and the use of epidemiological risk models to predict the outcomes of
interventions.
Figure 2: Overview of the Stages of statistical data Analysis

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 44

Calculations of data in fractions, rates, proportions and percentages
Fractions having the general form a/ (a + b) (where a is the number of animals with
the event of interest, and b is the number of animals at risk of but not experiencing
that event) are called either rates or proportions.
In practical terms rates are fractions, but they usually are multiplied by 100 or 1000,
etc., so the result is a number greater than 1.
Morbidity and mortality are the two main categories of events for which rates are
calculated.
Other rates for veterinarians are: Culling, pregnancy, survival to weaning.
The mathematical forms that these measures can take includes Count, Proportion,
Odd and Rate.

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 45

Count
This is a simple enumeration of the number of cases of disease or number of animals affected
with a condition in a given population. Because the size of the population is not taken into
consideration, counts of events are of very limited use for epidemiologic research.
Proportion
This is a ratio in which the numerator is a sub set of the denominator. For example, if 200
cows are tested for enzootic bovine leukosis (EBL) and 40 of them are positive, the proportion
positive is 40/200=0.2 (or 20%). Prevalence and risk are both proportions. In the prevalence,
both the numerator and denominator are measured at a point in time. In the risk, the numerator
relates to the number of new cases over a period of time so, although proportions have no
units, the time period must be specified for the proportion to make sense.
 
Odds ratio
This is a ratio in which the numerator is not a subset of the denominator. For example, if there
are three still born animals and 120 live births, the odds of stillbirth is 3: 120=0.025: 1 or 25
stillbirths to 1,000 live births.

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 46

Rate
A rate is a fraction in which the denominator is the number of animal-time units at
risk. Example, if there are 30 cases of kennel cough in a 100 dog, kennel over a
three-month period, the incidence rate is 30/ (100*3)=0.1 cases per dog-month. Note
the 300 dog-months in the denominator. Rates usually are multiplied by 100 or 1000,
etc. So the result is a number greater than 1.
 
Incidence rate
Incidence is the development of new cases of a disease that occur during a specified
period of time in previously disease-free or condition-free (“at risk”) individuals. As
an example, last year a herd of 121 cattle were tested using the tuberculin test and all
tested negative. This year, the same 121 cattle were tested again and 25 tested
positive. The cumulative incidence over a period of 12 months would then be
calculated as 25/121 which amounts to 0.21. Hence, interpretation is that an
individual animal within this herd had a 21% chance of becoming infected over the
12 month period.

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 47

Prevalence
Prevalence refers to the number of cases of a given disease or attribute that exists in
a population at a specified time.

 
Example
Farm A has 7 cows with mastitis on March 21, 2011. And a total of 4 cases were
recorded after March 22 for the year 2011. Population of farm A = 70. Point
prevalence of mastitis on March 21 is = .10 or 10%.

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 48

Mortality rate
Mortality rate (mortality density), M, is calculated similarly to incidence rate. The
numerator comprises the number of deaths. However, since an animal is at risk of
dying after onset of disease. Animals that develop disease continue to be included in
the denominator until they die
.

 
Death rate
The death rate is the total mortality rate for all diseases rather than one specific
disease in a population. Some authors do not distinguish between mortality rate and
death rate. Thus, a disease-specific death rate may be encountered. Similarly, a
crude mortality rate, referring to deaths from all causes, may be described.

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 49

Case fatality (CF)
It is the tendency for a condition to cause the death of affected animals in a specified time is the case fatality
(CF). It measures the probability of death in diseased animals, is dimensionless, and can take values between 0
and 1 (or 0-100%). The value of the case fatality depends on the time of observation, which can range from a
brief period of hospitalization to several years.

 
Survival
Survival, S, is the probability of individuals with a specific disease remaining alive for a specified length of
time.
 

 
Where: D = the number of deaths observed in a specified period of time, and
N = the number of newly diagnosed cases under observation during the same period of time. Survival is the
complement of case fatality. Thus, for a given period of observation, the sum of the case fatality and survival
should equal 1 (100%). During observation, an animal may die, survive, or be 'censored'. An animal is censored
when follow-up ends before death or completion of the full period of observation (e.g., if an animal cannot be
traced or the study is terminated).

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 50

Attack rates
Attack rates are usually used in outbreak situations where the period of risk is
limited and all cases arising from exposure are likely to occur within the risk period.
Attack rate is defined as the number of cases divided by the number of individuals
exposed. ‘Attack risk’ would be a more precise way to describe this parameter.
 
Proportional mortality
As its name implies, proportional mortality is simply the proportion of all deaths that
are due to a particular cause for a specified population and time period:
 

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 51

QUIZ- 5%
Quiz 2: Short Answer Questions
 
1. Define raw data.
2. Write formulas for calculations of the following:
a. Prevalence
b. Mortality rate
c. Incidence rate
d. Survival
3. What are the elements of an animal health information system?
DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 52
Information Sheet 3- Checking data to identify transcription errors and atypical entries
Data Verification
Before you start any analyses, you must verify that your data are correct. This can be
combined with the following two processes (processing your outcome and predictor
variables) because both involve going through all of your variables, one-by-one.
•If you have a very small dataset, you might want to print the entire dataset (make sure
it aligns all values for one variable in one column) and review it for obvious errors.
However, this is rarely feasible for datasets from epidemiologic studies.
• For continuous variables: determine the number of valid observations and the number
of missing values check the maximum and minimum values (or the five smallest and
five largest) to make sure they are reasonable (if they are not, find the error, correct it
and repeat the process) prepare a histogram of the data to get an idea of the distribution
and see if it looks reasonable.
• For categorical variables: determine the number of valid observations and the number
of missing values obtain a frequency distribution to see if the counts in each category
look reasonable (and to make sure there are no unexpected categories).

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 53

Types and sources of data errors

Obvious errors made during the data entry

measurement error during data collection
sample-to-sample variability while collecting
the variability of the outcome being measured and
incomplete questionnaire
technical omissions
legibility of handwriting

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 54

Checking questionnaire and data collection sheets
A questionnaire returned from the field may be unacceptable for several
reasons:
 Parts of the questionnaire may be incomplete
 The pattern of responses may indicate that the respondent did not understand or follow the
instructions
 The responses show little variance
 One or more pages are missing
 The questionnaire is received after pre-established cutoff date
 The questionnaire is answered by someone who does not qualify for participation

Example: How long have you lived at your current address? 48. What is your
age? 32 years. This answer contradicts the earlier response.

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 55

QUIZ- 5%
Quiz 3: Write the short answers
1. Write at least three types and sources of data errors.
2. Write at least three reasons for a questionnaire returned from the field not
acceptable.

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 56

Information Sheet 4- Rectifying errors in data
Ways for verifying data and rectifying mistakes
The following are techniques used to verify and rectify obvious mistakes in data.
These are: error checking, data cleaning and data editing.
Error Checking
Verifying the accuracy of data entry and checking for some kinds of obvious errors
made during the data entry. Error checking is often accomplished through frequency
analysis.
Data cleaning
Data cleaning is process of detecting, diagnosing, and editing faulty data. It is
checking written responses for any stray/lost marks.

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 57

Data editing
Data editing is changing the value of data shown to be incorrect or the
process of checking and adjusting raw data in the completed questionnaires
or from other source (laboratory, field) for:
omissions
Legibility
consistency and readying them for coding and storage and
Retrieving
The editing of data is a process of examining the raw data to detect errors and
omissions and to correct them, if possible, so as to ensure legibility,
completeness, consistency and accuracy. The recorded data must be legible so
that it could he coded later.

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 58

Types of Editing
There are two types of data editing.
1. Pre-collection Editing and
2. Post-collection
 
1. Pre-collection Editing: this is also sub divided into two: Design editing and
editing during the pretest stage.
 
Design editing: questionnaire or format can be edited before data collection (for
what information has to be collected) to improve questionnaire format, identifying
poor instructions or inappropriate question wording. Editing during the pretest stage
can prove the quality of the data collected.

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 59

2. Post-collection: is further divided in to field editing and in-house editing.
 
a. Field Editing
The field editing consists of review of the reporting forms by the investigator
for completing or translating what the latter has written in abbreviated form at
the time of interviewing the respondent. This form of editing is necessary in
view of the writing of individuals, which vary from individual to individual
and sometimes difficult for the tabulator to understand. This sort of editing
should be done as soon as possible after the interview, as it may be necessary
sometimes to recall the memory. Preliminary editing by a field supervisor on
the same day as the interview or recording from the laboratory result:
to catch technical omissions,
check legibility of handwriting, and
clarify responses that are logically or conceptually inconsistent

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 60

b. In-house editing (Central editing)
Editing performed by a central office staff, Supervisor or advisor, often done more
rigorously than field editing. It is also done by preparation for software. Central
editing should be carried out when all the forms of schedules have been completed and
returned to the headquarters.
This type of editing requires that all the forms are thoroughly edited by a single person
(editor) in a small field study or a small group of persons in case of a large field study,
the editor may correct the obvious errors, such as an entry in a wrong place, entry
recorded in daily terms whereas it should have been recorded in weeks/months, etc.
Sometimes, inappropriate or missing replies can also be recorded by the editor by
reviewing the other information recorded in the schedule. If necessary, the respondent
may be contacted for clarification.
All the incorrect replies, which are quite obvious, must be deleted from the schedules.
The editor should be familiar with the instructions and the codes given to the
interviewers while editing. The new (corrected) entry made by the editor should be in
some distinctive form and they be initialed by the editor. The date of editing may also
be recorded on the schedule for any future references.

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 61

Editing solution for missing value
The following are solutions used for editing errors for missing parts:
 Returning to the field: The questionnaires with unsatisfactory responses may be returned to
the field, where the interviewers re-contact the respondents.
 Assigning missing values: If returning the questionnaires to the field is not feasible, the
editor may assign missing values to unsatisfactory responses.
 Discarding unsatisfactory respondents/unit of study: In this approach, the respondents with
unsatisfactory responses are simply discarded.

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 62

QUIZ 5%
Quiz 4: Write the short answers
1. Write the three techniques used to verify and rectify obvious mistakes in data.
2. Write the two types of data editing.
 
Choose the best answer
1. ----------------is process of detecting, diagnosing, and editing faulty data.
A. Data cleaning B. data editing C. error checking D. Coding
2. Which one of the following is not an editing solution for missing value of data?
A. Taking unsatisfactory respondents as it is B. Returning to the field
C. Assigning missing values D. All
3. The type of editing carried out when all the forms of schedules have been completed and returned to the
headquarters is.
A. Field editing B. Central editing C. Pretest editing D. All

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 63

LO #2- Present data in tables, charts and graphs

Content coverage and topics:

Presenting data in tables and charts
Recognizing and reporting data

Upon completion of this Learning Guide, you will be able to:

Present data in tables and charts
Recognize and report data

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 64

Information Sheet 1- Presenting data in tables and charts
Organizing and displaying data
When data is collected from a survey or designed experiment, they must be
organized into a manageable form. Before presentation, data should be coded,
entered to computer, checked for error. Data that is not organized is referred to as
raw data. The processing of data can either be in the form of tables or in the form of
graphs.
Coding data
Coding is the process of assigning some symbols (either) alphabetical or numerals or
(both) to the answers so that the responses can be recorded into a limited number of
classes or categories. The process of identifying and classifying each data value or
answer with a numerical score. Data will be coded on paper or in computer. The
numerical score or symbol is called a code, and serves as a rule for interpreting,
classifying, and recording data. Identifying responses with codes is necessary if data
is to be processed by computer. The coding is necessary for the efficient analysis of
data.

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 65

 For example, consider the following question.
What is your animals’ sex?
Male Female

We may assign a code of `0' to male and `1' to female animal. These codes may be specified
prior to the field work and if the codes are written on all questions of a questionnaire, it is said
to be wholly pre-coded.

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 66

Table 8: Examples of coding on coding sheets for different variables
Note that data collector can use his/her own code.

No Varable name Category definition (code)

1 Weight <1 kg= 3
1-1.5 kg=1
>1.5 kg=2
2 Sex Female=0
Male=1
3 Age adult=0
young =1
5 Breed Local=1
Hybrid=0
6 Cestode Positive=1
Negative=0

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 67

 Table 9: Example of un coded data on Microsoft Excel

Code Breed sex Weight Age Origin Health status

Diarrhea Status
Cestode NematodeGI helminth
1 Local Female <1kg Adult Ambo Clinically sick
Present Positive Positive Positive
2 Local Female <1kg Young Ambo Clinically sick
Present Positive Positive Positive
3 Local Female <1kg Young Ambo Clinically sick
Present Positive Positive Positive
4 Local Female 1-1.5 kg Adult Ambo Clinically sick
Present Positive Negative Positive
5 Local Male >1.5 kg Adult Ambo Clinically sick
Present Positive Positive Positive
6 Local Male 1-1.5 kg Adult Ambo Clinically sick
Present Positive Positive Positive
7 Local Male >1.5 kg Adult Ambo Clinically sick
Present Positive Positive Positive
8 Local Female <1kg Adult Ambo Clinically sick
Present Positive Positive Positive
9 Local Female 1-1.5 kg Adult Ambo Clinically sick
Present Positive Positive Positive
10 Hybrid Female 1-1.5 kg Adult Ambo Clinically sick
Present Negative Negative Positive

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 68

Table 10: Example of coded data on Microsoft Excel (coded only for Cestodes from
Table 2 above)

Health
Code Breed sex Weight Age Origin status Diarrhea Status Cestode

1 1 0 3 0 1 0 1 1

2 1 0 3 1 1 0 1 1

3 1 0 3 1 1 0 1 1

4 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1

5 1 1 2 0 1 0 1 1

6 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1

7 1 1 2 0 1 0 1 1

8 1 0 3 0 1 0 1 1

9 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1

10 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 69

Data Entry
Data entry is the step comes after coding. It is the transfer of codes from questionnaires (or coding
sheets) to a computer (soft wares like SPSS and STATA) in epidemiological data analysis for animal
health data.

Ways to organize data

Tables
Diagram/Scheme
Charts
Graphs/Plots
Map
Function of tables and figures
To summarize data and results of analysis
To give a better (and quicker, shorter) overview than just text (passages)
Easier and quicker to compare (groups of) results
Data in a (big) table can sometimes better be presented as figure

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 70

Following are the important characteristics of a table:
1. Every table should have a clear and concise title to make it understandable without reference to the
text. This title should always be just above the body of the table.
2. Every table should be given a distinct number to facilitate easy reference.
3. Every table should have captions (column headings) and stubs (row headings) and they should be clear
and brief
4. The units of measurements used must always be indicated.
5. Source or sources from where the data in the table have been obtained must be indicated at the bottom
of the table.
6. Explanatory footnotes, if any, concerning the table should be given beneath the table along with
reference symbol.
7. The columns in the tables may be numbered to facilitate reference.
8. Abbreviations should be used to the minimum possible extent.
9. The tables should be logical, clear, accurate and as simple as possible.
10. The arrangement of the data categories in a table may be a chronological, geographical, alphabetical or
according to magnitude to facilitate comparison.
11. Finally, the table must suit the needs and requirements of the research study.

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 71

Table 11: Frequency and Relative Frequency Table

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 72

Important criteria for tables and figures
•Should be clear and interpretable without reading the text
•Refer to each table and figure in the text. Examples:
Group A is significantly larger than group B (Table 1).
Figure 1 shows …….
…..is shown in Table 1
•Abbreviation is allowed for figure:
•Depending on journal, both ‘Fig. 1’and ‘Figure 1’are used while the word ‘Table’ is usually not abbreviated
•Table legends given on the top,
•figure legends underneath
•In manuscripts, tables and figures are usually added
on separate pages after the body of the paper.
•A period (.) and space are used in the legend after the table number. In some journals a colon (:) or just nothing is used.
•Measurement units are specified in column headings if row items are similar.
•Three demarcation lines are used to separate the four table parts.
•Most journals do not accept vertical lines.
•Footnotes are used to clarify some points in the table (or to indicate significances).

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 73

Graphical Presentation of Data (Data by charts)
This is Presentation of data by graphs, charts, drawings, schemes, pictures, etc.
Several types of graphs or charts are used to present statistical data. Of them; the
following are commonly used: bar chart, two dimensional diagrams, pictograms, pie
charts and arithmetic chart or line chart. Regarding figures, note that
•there are many types:
*Graphs, charts, drawings, schemes, pictures, etc.
•use period (.) and space after the figure number
•units should be given on axis where appropriate
•various kinds of additional information possible
*Like: Error bars, sample sizes, significances, etc.

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 74

Polygon
Polygon is graph of a frequency distribution. Good for showing and comparing two
or more distributions on the same set of axes. It is line graph (rather than a bar
graph).
Figure 3: Scientific figure Polygon

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 75

Bar graph
It is a bar graph is constructed by labeling each category of data on either the
horizontal or vertical axis or the frequency or relative frequency of the category on
the other axis.
Figure 4: Scientific figure Bar

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 76

Histogram
Graph of the frequency distribution of a continuous variable. Though a histogram
looks like a bar graph, it differs by the fact that all the bars are adjoining.
Example: Epidemic Curve - a histogram of disease cases during an outbreak
Figure 5: Histogram

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 77

Scatter plots
Used for plotting the relationship between two continuous variables. It is an effective
way to see a relationship in data is to display the information as a scatter plot. It
shows how two variables are related to each other by showing how closely the data
points fit to a line.
Figure 6: Scatter plots

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 78

Pictograms
In this form of presentation, data are represented by a picture. For example,
population figures are presented by the picture of a human being, production figures
of, say motorbikes, is presented by the picture of a motorbike, cattle population by a
picture of cattle and so on. The following figure presents a pictograph showing the
students on roll at the school/university level for the year 1996-97 and 1997-98.
Figure 7: The students on roll at the school/university stage

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 79

Pie Chart
In a pie chart, different segments of a circle represent percentage contribution of
various components to the total. It brings out the relative importance of various
components of data. For drawing a pie chart, we construct a circle of any diameter
and then the circle is broken into a desired number of segments, angle 3600
representing 100 percent. Percent is used as unit.
Figure 8: Pie Chart

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 80

QUIZ 5%
Quiz 5: Choose the best answer
1._______ is the process of assigning some symbols (either) alphabetical or
numerals or (both) to the answers so that the responses can be recorded into a limited
number of classes or categories.
A. Coding B. Data entry C. Analysis D. None
2. Which comes first when organizing data?
A. coding B. analysis C. Collection D. Data entry
  Short Answer Questions (6points)
1. Write ways to organize data.
2. List advantages of using tables and figures for presentation of data.

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 81

Information Sheet 2- Recognizing and reporting data
Introduction to data flow
Veterinarians, technicians, farmers and other stakeholders, working on farms or at
slaughterhouses, abattoirs or laboratories may all produce in-field data. This makes
data flow a critical aspect of AHI systems.
The restricted access of specific users to sensitive data needs to be taken into account
when establishing the flow of disease data in an AHI system.
Disease data need to be recorded and integrated following a logical sequence of steps
leading up to validation and integration in the database prior to dissemination.
Reporting collected data and analyzed data (outputs)
Once data have been analyzed, the results must be made available to those involved in
decision-making. The information has value at many different levels. Potential users
include livestock owners, owner groups and cooperatives, as well as industry bodies,
private veterinary services, agricultural product manufacturers, legislators, university
and research organizations, trading partners, regional or international organizations,
and local, provincial and national government veterinary authorities
DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 82
Key considerations for the development of an animal health information system
A well-designed, functional AHI system should be based on clear rules and procedures.
specify the responsibilities and duties of the different institutions and actors
those who generate the data should be responsible for their validation (as these
stakeholders will possess all the necessary information to undertake the validation).
The organizational structure of the institutions involved must be respected when data
flows (inputs and outputs) are developed.
It is crucial to ensure that the system respects data ownership and confidentiality, and
that all data are stored securely.
To improve their ability to recognize clinical signs of disease, these veterinary
practitioners should receive training and be targeted by communication campaigns.
Abattoirs and animal markets may also enter relevant epidemiological data into AHI
systems.
A collaborative approach involving management experts and veterinary professionals

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 83

Figure 9: Main data flow in an AHI System

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 84

QUIZ- 5%
Quiz 6: Short Answer Questions
1. What are the Key considerations for the development of an animal health
information system?
 
2. List the main data flow in an AHI system by sketching its skeleton.

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 85

LO #3- Store and retrieve data

Content coverage and topics:

filing and storing data
Maintaining enterprise confidentiality standards

Upon completion of this learning guide, you will be able to:

file and store data
Maintain enterprise confidentiality standards

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 86

Information Sheet 1- Filing and storing data
Filing data
Filing data is giving name for the data and put it for future use. Most of the time filing is performed on
computer Microsoft excels. Each file is individually filed. Fling helps for proper handling of the data and
for easy access to data. The process of filing data is used to manage data in proper means. File name is
given and the filed data should be stored. The data can be filed on data collection sheet too. Technique of
filing is to the data collector.
Some things to consider when dealing with the file are as follows.
Do not remove originals from this file. If you need to take a specific sheet for use at another location, make
a photocopy of the sheet.
 Never ship the original to another location without first making copies of all forms. (You don't want to lose
your whole study because the post office or courier loses your package).
Set up a system for recording the insertion of data collection sheets into the file so that you know how
many remain to be collected before further work begins. •
Once all of the forms have been collected, before you do anything else, scan through all sheets to get an
impression for their completeness.
If there are omissions in the data-collection sheet (ie forgetting to complete the last page of a
questionnaire), retuming to the data source to complete these data will more likely be successful if it is done
soon after data were initially collected rather than weeks or months later (after data analysis has begun).

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 87

Table 12: data filing example on Microsoft excel
coding information
breed 1=local Age 1=young Sex 1=female Animal source 1=Ambo Health status 1= apparently healthy Diarrhoeal status 1= present
2=hybrid 2=adult 2=male 2= Direinchini 2= Clinnically sick 2= Ansent
3=Holeta

Storing data
AHI systems should be able to handle a large amount of data and information. Paper-
based systems are often inefficient and severely limited in the volume of information they
can process. Computerized systems based on database management systems are more
efficient, and are recommended, even for use in developing countries, due to their ability
to store and effectively manage large amounts of data for processing.

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 88

QUIZ-5%
Quiz 6: Short Answer Questions
1. What are the main resources required for central infrastructure to store data and
provide web-based services?
2.___________ is giving name for the data and put it for future use.

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 89

Information Sheet 2- Maintaining enterprise confidentiality standards
Maintaining the confidentiality of data
For many years, the Animal National Animal Health Monitoring System (NAHMS)
has served as the primary source for national level statistical data on animal health
and management.
As a unit within Veterinary Services (VS) program, NAHMS conducts national
commodity studies, develops study designs for epidemiologic investigations, and
examines issues of interest through analysis of statistical data.
NAHMS studies generate statistically valid data used to analyze the health of various
animal species and commodity groups in the United States.
These data and corresponding analyses are used by VS to develop regulatory policy,
to promote trade, and to inform industry and the general public.

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 90

As a recognized statistical unit, NAHMS now has the ability to gather data from
producers and perform studies that focus on a wider range of issues, such as:
Collecting regionalization/zoning/compartmentalization data that will be used to
provide vital information on the mitigation of international trade restrictions
 Performing anonymous sampling to address sensitive issues such as antimicrobial
resistance in which regulatory action and trace backs are not required. This sampling
will provide voluntary response data on prevalence, distribution, and risk factors that
are difficult to obtain without strong confidentiality protections.
 Informing program and policy development using nationally representative
statistical information
Identifying appropriate disease-control strategies and assistance in regional disease
control efforts through rapidly deployed emergency epidemiologic investigations
 Partnering with second-party data providers to advance issues of mutual interest.

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 91

Thank you!

DR. FERAHADIN S. (NAPTC) 92