Formation of the Elements and

Nuclear Reactions
Elements are Formed in Different Ways in
our Universe
 Nucleosynthesis
• Nucleosynthesis is the process of element (nuclei) formation.
• Three types: Big Bang nucleosynthesis
Stellar (star) nucleosynthesis
Supernova nucleosynthesis
• Today, only stellar and supernova nucleosynthesis are
occurring in our universe.
• Element formation in our universe relies on nuclear fusion
reactions.
(fusion = come together)
 Nuclear Fusion
• In nuclear fusion, smaller nuclei
collide together to make larger nuclei,
and energy is released in the form of
electromagnetic radiation.
• Requires extremely high temperatures
and pressures beyond those found on
or within Earth. However, these
temperatures and pressures are found
inside stars and did occur during the
initial formation of our universe
(during the Big Bang event).
 Nuclear Fusion
• Fusion involves only the nuclei of
atoms. At the temperatures at which
fusion can occur, matter exists as a
plasma. This is the state of matter
where the electrons have been
stripped off of the atoms. Plasma is
basically a super high energy,
electrically charged gas.
• When nuclei collide, some of the mass
of the nuclei is converted to energy by
Einstein’s famous equation, E=mc2.
Nuclear fusion releases a lot of energy
per gram of material.
 The Big Bang
• The Big Bang Theory is the most widely
accepted scientific theory about the origin
of the universe. It is supported by multiple
lines of evidence.
• The “Big Bang” was a phenomenally
energetic explosion that initiated the
expansion of the universe.
• At the moment prior to the Big Bang
explosion, all matter and energy were
compressed at a single point (a singularity –
a point of infinite density).
 The Big Bang
• We do not know what was before…..?
• The universe has been expanding ever
since, with galaxies moving farther and
farther apart.
• Using the rates of expansion measured in
the universe and astronomical distances,
the age of the universe can be calculated
back to the time of the Big Bang. The age
of the universe is calculated at about 13.7
billion years old. By contrast, our Sun and
its surrounding planets (i.e. our Solar
System) is 4.65 billion years old.
 Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
• All Hydrogen and most Helium in the universe was produced during the Big Bang Event,
starting ~100 seconds after the explosion. A small amount of Lithium was also produced.

• Big Bang nucleosynthesis ceased within a few minutes after the Big Bang because the
universe had expanded and cooled sufficiently by then such that the temperatures and
pressures were too low to support additional nuclear fusion reactions.
Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
 Stellar Nucleosynthesis
• A star is a very hot ball of gas (plasma). Stars create elements by combining lighter nuclei
into heavier nuclei via nuclear fusion reactions in their cores and releasing energy in the
process. They are natural nuclear reactors!
• Enormous temperatures (15,000,000 K), pressures, and densities of matter are needed to
initiate the fusion (thermonuclear) reactions which squeeze nuclei together and release
energy.
• The basic nuclear reaction in the Sun converts hydrogen to helium and releases energy in
the form of electromagnetic radiation (see the basic fusion reaction below). This is why
our Sun shines!
• Our Sun is only large enough to fuse hydrogen into helium within its core.
Stellar Nucleosynthesis
 Stellar Nucleosynthesis
• Stars much larger than our
Sun can fuse heavier elements
from lighter elements.
• These giant stars have an
“onion layer” structure.
• As you proceed deeper into
the star, temperatures and
pressures increase, and
heavier and heavier nuclei are
fused together.
 Stellar Nucleosynthesis
• can be made in a star is iron.
Elements heavier than iron
have fusion reactions with
temperature and pressure
requirements greater than
those that can occur within
the core of a giant star.
• Note: In the adjacent
diagrams, the term “burning”
really means nuclear fusion!
 Nuclear Fusion Requirements
(in stars)
Fusion By- Minimum Core Minimum Core Minimum Stellar
Fusion
product Temperature Density Mass*
Hydrogen He 13 million K 100 gm/cc 0.08 solar masses
Helium C, O 100 million K 100,000 gm/cc 0.5 solar masses
Carbon O, Ne, Mg, Na 500 million K 200,000 gm/cc 4 solar masses
about 8 solar
Neon O, Mg 1.2 billion K 4 million gm/cc
masses
about 8 solar
Oxygen Mg, Si, S, P 1.5 billion K 10 million gm/cc
masses
Si, S, Ar, Ca, Ti, Cr, about 8 solar
Silicon around 3 billion K 30 million gm/cc
Fe, Ni masses

gm/cc = grams per cubic centimeter (units of density)

https://sites.uni.edu/morgans/astro/course/Notes/section2/fusion.html
 Supernova Nucleosynthesis
An exploded star
• Elements heavier than Iron (Z = (supernova)
26) are made primarily when
giant stars explode in
supernovae. Relative Abundance of the Elements in our Universe

• Even the largest stars do not have

core temperatures and pressures
high enough to fuse iron into
heavier elements. Therefore,
when a star runs out of nuclear
fuel (lighter nuclei) and can no
longer undergo fusion reactions,
gravity causes the star to collapse.
The gravitational collapse triggers
a phenomenally large explosion
called a supernova
 Supernova Nucleosynthesis
An exploded star
• The explosion of the star (supernova)
momentarily generates high
enough temperatures and Relative Abundance of the Elements in our Universe
pressures to cause nuclear
fusion reactions that make
elements with atomic numbers
27-92 (Cobalt to Uranium).
• Since only the largest stars can
explode in supernovae events,
elements with atomic numbers
27-92 are rarer than elements
with atomic numbers 1-26
(see abundance diagram to
right)
 A summary…
(You are made of stardust from exploded stars)
 Nuclear Fission
• We have learned that elements form in the universe by nuclear fusion reactions
which assemble larger nuclei by forcing smaller nuclei together under
tremendous temperatures and pressures.
• However, elements can also form when a large, unstable nucleus breaks apart
in an attempt to achieve a more stable, lower energy state.
• The splitting of a nucleus to form two or more smaller, more stable nuclei is
called nuclear fission. (fission = split)
• Fission may occur spontaneously (without energy being added) or it may be
prompted by firing a nuclear bullet (like a proton or neutron) at an unstable
nucleus, as seen in the example below.
Nuclear
bullet
 Nuclear Fission
• Like fusion, fission also releases energy stored in the nucleus of an atom. However, not
as much energy is released from fission as from fusion. Still, the energy released per
gram of material by fission is considerably more than the energy released by burning a
comparable amount of wood, oil, gasoline, etc. Fission of uranium-235 atoms is used in
nuclear power plants to produce energy.
• Fission also occurs naturally within the layers of the earth as radioactive elements in
rocks spontaneously decay to more stable elements, creating a natural source of heat
within the earth. You also contain a small proportion of radioactive isotopes within
your body. These isotopes decay naturally, releasing radiation. Therefore, you are
slightly radioactive too! So is the banana you ate for breakfast!

Nuclear
bullet
 Nuclear Reactions can be Represented by
• Fusion
Nuclear Equations
Making a
larger nucleus
from two or
more smaller
nuclei

• Fission
Making two or
more smaller
nuclei from a
larger nucleus
 Important Symbols Used in Nuclear Equations
• To write a nuclear
reaction, you must Particle How written in a nuclear reaction
remember how to Proton 1 1
  p or H
read and use   1 1
isotope symbol
Neutron 1
notation   n
  0

Electron 0 0
(Beta particle) e or β
  -1 -1

• You must know the Alpha Particle 4 4

(Helium nuclei) α or He
symbols used for   2 2
various subatomic
particles like Gamma Particle or γ
Ray (a massless packet of pure
protons, neutrons,   electromagnetic radiation, a form of
etc. energy)
 Transmutation
Transmutation is a general term for the changing of chemical element
or isotope to another by changing the number of protons and/or
neutrons. Fusion and fission reactions both qualify as transmutations.
The bombardment of a nucleus by a nuclear bullet in order to change it
into another element also counts as transmutation.
 Synthetic Elements
• Elements with atomic
numbers Z ≥ 93 are synthetic
(man-made)
• These elements have been
made in particle accelerators,
either by smashing smaller
nuclei together or else by
shooting nuclear bullets at
large nuclei.
• These elements are all
radioactive. They decay over
time to more stable elements,
releasing radiation (particles
and energy) from their nuclei.
Some have very short half-
lives and have only existed for
fractions of a second.
 Synthetic Elements
• Some synthetic elements have
uses for mankind. Americium
(Am) is used in smoke
detectors. Others have no
current use but were made
during basic research to better
understand atomic nuclei and
the forces that hold them
together. The heaviest
synthetic element has an
atomic number of 118. It has
no uses at present.