MEASURING

HORIZONTAL
DISTANCES
1.0 Introduction

Measuring distances along straight lines

1. In topographical surveys, you measure distances along straight lines.

These lines either join two fixed points or run in one direction starting from
one fixed point. They are plotted in the field with pegs, pillars or ranging
poles.
Expressing distances as horizontal measurements
2. You should always measure distances as
horizontal distances. You may have to
measure on ground which has no slope, or
only a very small slope that is less than or
equal to 5 percent. The distance measured
on this type of ground will be equal to or very
close to the horizontal distance.
When the slope of the terrain is greater than
5 percent, however, you will have to find the
horizontal distance. To do this, you must
either correct any measurements you made
along the ground or use another method of
measurement. Unlevelled ground also
requires particular methods of measurement.
Measuring distances along lines that run through obstacles

3. Usually, you will be able to reach

all the points of the straight line you
want to measure. But in some cases
an obstacle such as a lake, a river or
a cultivated field will be in the way,
and you will have to take indirect
measurements.
This means that you will calculate
horizontal distances along the
original straight line.
Choosing the most suitable method

4. There are many good ways to measure

distances. The method of measurement
you use will depend on several factors:
the accuracy of the result needed;

• the accuracy of the result needed;

• the equipment you have available to
use;
• the type of terrain you need to measure.

In the following sections, you will learn

how to use the various methods of
measurement. Table 1 will also help you to 1 * Simple ** More difficult *** Most difficult.
compare these methods and to select the 2 Error increases as the terrain becomes more difficult (slope, vegetation,
obstacles).
one best suited to your needs. 3 In addition to ranging poles (setting out the line), marking pegs (intermediate
points), and notebook/pencil. In italics, equipment you can build yourself, as
explained in text.
Calculating perimeter lengths
5. The perimeter of an area is its outer boundary. The length of the perimeter
of regular geometrical figures can be calculated from the mathematical
formulas given in Annex 1, at the end of this manual.
1.1 How to measure short distances with a ruler

1. To measure short distances, use a measuring stick called a ruler, 4 to 5

m long. You can make your own by following the steps below. A ruler is
particularly useful for measuring horizontal distances on sloping ground.
2. Making your own ruler
a. Get a piece of wood which is straight and
flat. It should be about 5 cm wide, and a little
more than 4 m long. You can also use a
shorter length, if the distance you are going to
measure is shorter.
b. It is best to use a planed piece of wood, but
if you cannot get one you may use a straight
wooden pole. If you use a pole, you should
plane at least one of its surfaces.
c. You should now add graduations to it. Graduations are marks which show
exact measurements, in centimetres, decimetres, metres, etc. To do this, you
need to get two ready-made measuring tapes, such as the 2 m ribbon tapes
that tailors use. Glue one of these measuring tapes onto the planed face of
your piece of wood. Take care to align the zero mark of this tape with one of
the ends of the piece of wood. Glue the second tape next to the end of the
first tape; this should reach near the end of the piece of wood. Drive several
small nails through the tapes to secure them better.

d. You can also make the graduations yourself. Using a measuring ruler or
tape, mark the graduations on the piece of wood with a pencil. With a knife or
saw, make a straight, shallow cut every 10 cm. A carpenter, with his tools,
can help you to do this more accurately. Identify the graduations with
numbers (for example, every 0.5 m) using paint or ink; or you can use a
piece of hot wire to burn the graduations and their numbers into the wood.
Measuring short distances with your ruler
3. When you have to measure a short distance
on horizontal terrain, mark each
end of the distance with ranging poles.
Place your ruler on the ground with its end
at the first ranging pole, making sure the
ruler follows the straight line. Put a marking
peg at the other end of the ruler. Then take
the ruler and place its first end at this
marking peg. Continue in this way until you
reach near the end of the line, keeping an
accurate count of the number of ruler
lengths. You will usually need to use only
part of the ruler's length to measure the last
part of the line. Take care then to read the
graduations on the ruler correctly.
4. When you need to measure a distance
on sloping terrain, your ruler will be very
useful for finding horizontal distances. You
proceed
downhill, and for each measurement:
• make sure that the ruler is horizontal,
using a mason's level.(level bar)
• determine the point where you need to
place the marking peg, using a plumb-
line at the end of the ruler.

Note: when you measure a distance on sloping

ground, remember that you should proceed downhill.
1.2 How to measure distances by pacing

1. You may measure distances roughly by

pacing. This means you count the number of
normal steps which will cover the distance
between two points along a straight line.
Pacing is particularly useful in reconnaissance
surveys, for contouring using the grid method
and for quickly checking chaining
measurements.
2. To be accurate, you should know the average
length of your step when you walk normally.
This length is called your normal pace.
Always measure your pace from the toes of
the foot behind to the toes of the foot in front.
 Finding your own pace factor
3. To measure the average length of Example
your normal pace (the pace factor, or If for 100 paces, you measure a
PF): distance of 76 m, then your pace
• take 100 normal steps on horizontal factor is calculated like this:
ground, starting with the toes of your
back foot from a well-marked point, A,
and walking along a straight line
• mark the end of your last step with peg
B, at the toes of your front foot.
• measure the distance AB (in metres)
with, for example, a tape and calculate
your pace factor PF (in metres) as
follows:
𝑨𝑩
𝑷𝑭 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎
Note: to determine a more accurate pace factor:
• walk over a longer distance
(at least 250 paces)
• repeat the measurements at least three times
and calculate the average PF.
Example
For 250 paces, you measure successively 185
m, 190 m and 188 m. What is the Average PF?
4.Your pace factor will vary, depending
on the type of terrain you are measuring.
Remember that:

• your pace will be shorter in tall

vegetation than in short vegetation;
• your pace will be shorter walking uphill
than walking downhill;
• your pace will be shorter walking on
sloping ground than on flat ground;
• your pace will be shorter walking on
soft ground than on hard ground.
To get the best results, you should
first make your paces as nearly the
same length as possible. To do this,
walk over known distances, both on
level ground and on uneven or
sloping ground. Adjust your pace so
that it is as regular as possible.
Measuring horizontal distances by pacing
5. Clearly plot the straight lines you
have to measure, using wooden pegs Example
To measure ABCD, pace distances AB =
or ranging poles. If necessary, remove
127
any high vegetation standing in the steps; BC = 214 steps; and CD = 83 steps.
way.

6. Walk along the straight lines,

carefully counting your steps.

7. Multiply the number of steps N by

your pace factor PF (in metres) to get
a rough estimate of the distance in
metres, as follows:
Distance (m) = N x PF
Note: to avoid errors when counting your

steps:
• count only double steps or strides, and
multiply the total count by 2;
• take count of the hundreds with your
fingers (using one finger for each
hundred steps);
• take count of the thousands by ticking
them off on paper;
• when crossing obstacles such as
fences and small streams, estimate the
number of steps, strides or half-steps it
would take to cross them.
Pacing with a passometer or a pedometer
8. You can register your paces mechanically by using a
simple device called a passometer. The passometer
is about the size of a watch. You should wear it on a
point near the centre of your body, attached to a belt or
waistband for example. At each pace you take, the jolt
of your step makes a pointer in the passometer turn.
This pointer shows the number of paces.
9. The pedometer is a similar device, but it registers
distance. This is usually expressed in kilometres and
fractions of kilometres.
10. You should check these two devices for accuracy before
you use them. To check a passometer, walk a few hundred paces, counting them
carefully. Then compare your total count of paces with the number of registered paces,
and adjust the device as necessary. To check a pedometer, walk at a normal pace along
a straight line over a known distance. Compare this distance with the registered
distance, and adjust the device as necessary.
1.3 How to chain with a rope
1. For greater accuracy in measurement,
especially over difficult terrain, you can use
a measuring line made from rope.
Depending on the distances you need to
measure, you can make a measuring rope
10, 20 or 30 m long.

Making your own measuring rope

2. Get a rope 1 to 1.5 cm thick, made of natural

fibres. Ropes of man-made fibres, such as

nylon, may change over time, but natural
materials, such as jute, will shrink or stretch
very little. A piece of used sisal rope is better to
use than a new one. You can also use a piece of
supple liana, which you can easily find in the
3. Put the first mark- the zero mark- about 20
cm from one end of the rope. From this point,
accurately measure the length you need one
metre at a time. Leave about 20 cm at the other
end of the rope. Mark each metre point with
durable waterproof paint, dye, ink or coloured
wax. Keep these metre marks as thin as
possible to avoid inaccurate measurements.
You can use thin string for the marks instead,
threading the string through the rope so that it
does not shift position.

4. Reinforce the two ends of your measuring

rope. To do this, tightly wind some light string
around the last 10 cm of each end of the rope.
Measuring horizontal distances with a rope
5. Clearly plot the straight lines you want to
measure, using wooden pegs, for example.
On either side of each of these lines, clear
a narrow strip of ground completely,
removing vegetation and large stones.

6. If the distances are shorter than your

rope, or about the same length, you can
take their measurements directly. To do
this, carefully stretch the rope from one peg

to the next. If a distance fails between the

metre marks on your rope, measure this
shorter length with a ruler or a tape
graduated in centimetres.
7. If the distances are longer than your
rope, you will need to use one of the
chaining methods described later. These
methods can be used with all measuring
lines, including ropes, bands, tapes or
chains.
1.4 How to chain with bands or tapes
1. You can buy bands and tapes in
stores. A measuring band is made of a strip of steel,
usually 6 mm wide and 30 or 50m long. Metres,
decimetres and centimetres are clearly marked on the
band. Bands are wound onto an open frame, with a
spindle and handle for rewinding.
2. Measuring tapes are made of steel, metallic cloth or
fibreglass material. They come in lengths of 10 to 30 m or
more. They are usually marked at 1 m intervals, with the first
and last metres graduated in decimetres and centimetres.
They are wound into a case, with a handle for rewinding.
Tapes can present some problems. Steel tapes can easily
become twisted and break. Cloth tapes are less precise than
the others, since they often vary slightly in length.
Measuring horizontal distances with a steel band or a tape
3. Plot the straight lines you need to measure. If the lines are the same length as
your measuring band or tape or shorter, you can measure the distances directly.
To do this, stretch the band or tape from one peg to the next one.
4. If the lines are longer than your band or tape, use one of the methods
described later.

Note: you should pull bands and tapes tight, so that they do not sag, especially when you are
measuring long distances. But, you should avoid over-stretching them (especially fibreglass
tapes), since this could lead to errors.
 1.5 How to chain with a surveyor's chain

1. Surveyor's chains are also sold in stores. They

are made of a series of steel links; each link is the
same length, usually 20 cm. The links are attached
to each other by steel rings. The length of one
link includes its straight portion, its two rounded
ends, and the two half-rings that connect it to the
links on either side. Each metre of the chain is
usually marked by a brass ring. At each end of the
chain, there is a metal handle which you should
include in the measurements. The total length of
the chain is usually 10 or 20 m. Chains are less
accurate than bands and tapes, but they are much
stronger.
2. When you use a surveyor's chain, you
should be careful of the following:
• make sure that the rounded end of one
length does not remain on top of the one
next to it. This can make the chain shorter.
At the start of each survey, check for this by
sliding the entire length of the chain through
your hand and straightening all the links;
• avoid leaving the chain in the sun since the
heat may cause the chain to become
longer;
• pull the chain tight enough for accurate
measurement.
3. When using a chain for the first
time, you should carefully measure the
length of each link, using a ruler.
Remember that this length includes
the straight part and its two rounded
ends, as well as the two connecting
half- rings. At each end of the chain,
the handle, one shorter link, and half
the connecting ring make up the length
of a link. After measuring the length of
the links, check that 1 m of chain Example
equals the expected number of links. If each link is 0.20 m long, there
should be five links per metre of
chain.
4. You should always fold the surveyor's chain as follows:

• take the two handles together in • collect two links at a time with your right
your left hand, doubling the chain; hand, putting them slantwise.
Take both handles in your left hand
5. To unfold a surveyor's chain, hold the two
handles in your left hand and throw the
chain in the direction of the measurement
you want to make.
Measuring horizontal distances with a chain
6. The chain is used for measuring the lengths of straight lines, which should
be marked at each end with a ranging pole. You will need an assistant to help
you. The method of chaining you use depends on the type of terrain you are
measuring.
1.6 How to measure distances by chaining
1. As you have learned, measuring lines can be ropes, bands, tapes or surveyor's chains.
When you measure long distances, the way you use the measuring line will depend on the
slope of the terrain. When the terrain is flat or nearly flat (that is, with a slope of 5 percent
or less), you can measure the horizontal distances by following the ground surface. This
method is usually used in measuring fish culture sites, where steeper slopes must be
avoided. When the slope of the terrain is steeper than 5 percent, you should be especially
careful when you measure the horizontal distances because in this case the surface
measurement is always greater than the horizontal measurement.
Chaining over horizontal ground
2. Mark each straight line you need to
measure with a ranging pole at each end.
On lines longer than 50 m, place
intermediate markers at regular intervals

3. To measure long distances accurately,

you will need marking pins. You can use
thin wooden stakes about 25 cm long,
which you can easily carry in a small
basket. These marking pins will be driven
vertically into the ground as you proceed
with the chaining.
4. Chaining is carried out by two persons, a rear chainman and a head
chainman. The rear chainman is responsible for the measurements. He
notes the results. He also guides the head chainman to make
sure that the consecutive measurements are made exactly along straight
lines between the marked ground points.
5. Start the measurements at one end
of the straight line. Remove the
ranging pole and drive the first
marking pin into the ground at exactly
the same point.

6. The rear chainman places his end

of the measuring line against this
marking pin. The head chainman,
taking with him a number of marking
pins, walks away along the straight
line with the other end of the
measuring line.
7. The head chainman stops when the measuring line is stretched
out tightly to its full length on the ground. He then looks
towards the rear chainman. If the measuring line is not placed
exactly along the straight line, the rear chainman then tells the
head chainman how to correct the position of the measuring line.
8. When the measuring line is correctly placed, the rear chainman
signals to the head chainman to place a second marking pin at the
end of the measuring line.
9. The rear chainman immediately notes down this measurement.
10. The rear chainman then removes the first
marking pin, putting it in his basket, and replaces
the ranging pole at the starting point.
11. Still holding their ends of the measuring
line, both chainmen move forward along the
straight line, always keeping the
measuring line well stretched. This is
particularly important when using a
surveyor's chain.
12. The rear chainman stops at the second
marking pin and places his end of the
measuring line against it.
13. The head chainman tightens the
measuring line along the ground, corrects its
position following any directions from the
rear chainman, and places a third marking
pin at the end of the measuring line when
signalled to do so.
13. The head chainman tightens the
measuring line along the ground, corrects its
position following any directions from the rear
chainman, and places a third marking pin at
the end of the measuring line when signaled
to do so.
14. The rear chainman notes down this
measurement. Then he puts the second
marking pin in his basket before moving
on.
15. The process in steps 10 to 14 should
be repeated along each section of the
straight line until the end is reached.
Note 1: when the end of the line is
reached, the number of marking
pins in the basket of the rear
chainman shows the number of
complete measuring-line
lengths measured. You can use
this to check on the measurements
noted down.
Note 2: using a set of 11
marking pins makes it easier to
keep track of the number of
measurements completed. When
the rear chainman has ten pins in
his basket, ten complete
measuring-line lengths have been
Example
measured. He notes this
Using a chain 10 m long, the rear chainman has marked 4
down and gives the ten pins back x 10 pins in his notebook. He has 6 marking pins in his
to the head chainman, leaving basket. At the marking pin still in the ground, he has
the eleventh pin in the measured a distance of (4 x 10) + 6 = 46 chain lengths or
46 x 10 m = 460 m.
ground; this is the starting point
of a new series of measurements.
 
Chaining over sloping ground
16. When you are measuring on ground 
with a slope greater than 5 percent (see
Section 4.0), you will need to use the
measuring line differently to find
the horizontal distances.
17. Proceed as described in the previous
section. Mark the straight lines with
ranging poles at each end and
intermediate pegs. Remember to work
downhill for greater accuracy.
18. The head chainman should hold the
measuring line horizontal, above the
ground, in this case.
19. When the measuring line is in the
right place and is fully stretched, the
head chainman finds the exact point
on which to place the marking pin, 
using a plumb-line.
20. Keep proceeding in this way along
the slope.

Note: on steep slopes, use a shorter

measuring line (such as 5 m, rather
than 10 m).
21. As you measure on sloping ground, remember these important requirements:
 horizontal measuring line;    well-stretched measuring line;
• exact placement of the marking pins.

Note: you may also measure along the

ground on a slope. But to obtain horizontal
distances, you will need 
to correct these ground measurements afte
rwards by using 
mathematical formulas .
Chaining over irregular ground
22. You may need to measure distances
over irregular ground that has ridges,
mounds, rocks, trenches or streams in the
way. In such cases, you need to lift the
measuring line above the obstacle. Make
sure that you do the following:
 keep the measuring line well stretched.
The head chainman may shorten it by
looping it in his hand if necessary;
• keep the line horizontal, 
using a mason's level for the best
accuracy;
• lift the back end of the measuring
line exactly above the marking
pin, using a plumb-fine
 if necessary.
23. Instead of using a plumb-line,
you can use longer marking pins,
such as ranging poles, set vertically
in the ground.
24. In very hard or rocky soils, you
will not be able to use marking pins. In
such cases, mark t he points with
objects you can see easily, such as
painted rocks or blocks of wood. Make
sure that your markers will not blow or
roll away. Or, you can make a mark on
the ground with a stick, or make a
mark on a rock with chalk.
Improving the accuracy of your chaining
25. To make your chaining more accurate, you
should repeat the measurements at least
once; start measuring at the point where you
finished, and continue back along the line. This
second measurement should not differ too
much from the first one.
Measure twice for accuracy

26. If the two measurements agree, you can

calculate their average value. The average
value is taken as the true measured distance.
 AB + BA =  Average
Example   2
Using a surveyor's chain, you take the
following measurements:
 first measurement: 312.6 m;
 second measurement: 313.2 m;
 real difference: 313.2 m - 312.6 m = 0.6
m;
 acceptable difference: 0.2 m x (312.6 m /
100)
= 0.2 m x 3.12 m = 0.62 m
which is larger than the real difference
and therefore agrees;
 average distance: (312.6 m + 313.2 m)/ 2
= 312.9 m
27. If the two measurements differ by too much, you should take a third
measurement. Compare this with the first two measurements. Then calculate the
average value from the two most similar values, as shown above.
Example
Chaining with a steel tape, you take the following
measurements:
 first measurement: 754.4 m;
 second measurement: 753.2 m;
 real difference: 754.4 m - 753.2 m = 1.2 m;
 acceptable difference: 0.1 m x 7.54 m = 0.75 m, which is
smaller than the real difference and therefore does not
agree;
 third measurement: 753.9 m;
 difference 754.4 - 753.9 m = 0.5 m which is acceptable,
being smaller than 0.75 m;
average distance: (754.4 m + 753.9 m) / 2 = 754.15 m.
28. If you find you have very different
measurements of the same line, you may
not have been measuring along the true
straight line. To reduce such errors, put
more ranging poles on the line between
the endpoints. If you tie white or brightly
coloured pieces of cloth to the poles, you
will be able to see them better. Also, be
sure to guide the head chainman carefully
as you measure.
29. Further improve the accuracy of your
measurements by:
 inspecting the full length of the measuring line
before using it to measure a series of straight
lines;
 keeping a uniform tension on the measuring
line during each measurement;
 accurately marking each point of measurement;
 keeping an accurate count of these points;
 using the right device, such as a ruler, 
to measure 
distances less than the measuring-line lengt
h
, and knowing how to read the graduations on it.
Note: it is better if the head chainman holds
the zero end of the measuring line. The
rear chainman can then directly make and
note down any intermediate readings.
1.7 How to measure distances with a clisimeter
1. The lyra clisimeter is a simple instrument which can be used for
measuring distances. It is also used for measuring ground slope. The
clisimeter is not as accurate as a measuring line, but you can get
a quick estimate of distances from it without having to walk the
length of the line. The longer the distance you measure with it,
however, the less accurate the measurement will be. For good
estimates, do not exceed 30 m distances. For rough estimates,
you may measure distances up to 150 m.
 
2. The lyra clisimeter consists of a sighting
device,a hanging ring, and a bottom weight
to keep the instrument in a stable vertical
position. The clisimeter folds into this weight
so that it can be easily carried.
3. When you look through the sighting
device, you will see three vertical
scales. A scale is a series of marks along
a line at regular intervals. You will use the
central scale, the stadimetric scale, for
measuring horizontal distances.
Note that this central scale is made up of
two parts:
 The top part, marked 150, 100 ... 7 m;
 The bottom part, marked 150, 100 ...
10 m.
4. To measure a distance with the clisimeter, you need an assistant to help
you, and a reference height (called the base). The method you use with the
clisimeter will depend on the kind of base you choose.
 You may use a 2 m base, clearly marked on a wooden stake called
a stadia staff. In this case, you will use the top part of the distance scale,
marked BASE 2.00 m.
Or you may take the height of your assistant as the base; in this case, you
will use the bottom part of the distance scale, marked BASE 1.70 m.
Making your own stadia staff

5. Get a straight piece of wood 2.50 m

long. A rectangular stake with a cross-
section of 8 x 4 cm is best, but you can
use a round pole with a cross-section of
6 to 8 cm instead.
6. Get two wooden boards measuring 30
x 40 cm each.
7. Nail these boards along their centre
lines 10 cm from each end of the stake,
as shown in the figure.
8. Draw a horizontal line across the middle
of one of these boards. This is called
the median line.
9. From this line, measure exactly 2 m
along the stake. You should reach a point
near the middle of the second board. At
this point draw a horizontal line across the
board.
10. Using a pencil and ruler, divide the
length of the stake between the two
boards, which should be 1.70 m, into 10
cm sections.
11. Paint the two sections of the boards lying outside the 2 m length in
bright red. Then paint, in red, the first 10 cm section next to each board
and each alternate section in between.
12. Paint all the other sections of the boards and stake in white, including
the 10 cm end sections of the stake. Your stadia staff is now ready to use
for measuring distances.
Note: for short distances, you can use a simpler staff; get a pole or staff
exactly 2 m long and paint it alternately in red and white, as described
above.
Measuring distances with a stadia staff
13. Send your assistant, carrying the stadia staff,
out to the first point along the line you want to
measure. There he places the staff as nearly
vertical as possible and the painted side of the
staff should face you.
14. Holding the clisimeter in one hand, look through
its sighting device at the stadia staff. Align the
zero line of the central scale with the median line
of the bottom board.
15. Look at the top part of the central scale (BASE
2.00 m) of your clisimeter, and read the distance in
metres at the graduation which lines up with Sighting at the stadia staff
the median line of the top board. using the upper scale
16. Carefully note this reading in a field-book.
17. Signal to your assistant to remove the stadia staff and replace it with a
marking pin. He should then move on to the next point to be measured.
18. Move up to the marking pin left by your assistant, and repeat the
procedure until you reach the end of the line.

Note: remember that for fairly accurate measurements, each distance you

measure along the straight line should not exceed 30 m
Measuring distances without a stadia staff
19. If you do not have a stadia staff, you
can use the height of your assistant as a
reference instead. The height you need for
this method is 1.70 m. Measure your
assistant's height. If this differs much from
1.70 m, do one of the following:
 if your assistant is taller than 1.70 m,
measure the height of his eyes or mouth
from the ground and choose the height
nearest 1.70 m;
if your assistant is shorter than 1.70 m, ask
him to place an object on his head (such as
a can, a bottle or a block of wood) which
will increase his height up-to 1.70 m.
20. Send your assistant out along the line you want to measure
and, at the selected point, ask him to stand as straight as
possible, facing you.
21. Holding the clisimeter in one hand, look through the sighting
device at your assistant. Align the zero line of the central scale
with the 1.70 m mark you have chosen, such as the top of his
head, his eyes or the top of a bottle carried on his head.
22. Look at the bottom part of the central scale (BASE 1.70 m),
and read the distance in metres at the graduation which lines up
with the ground level under his feet.
23. Carefully note this reading in your field-book.
24. Signal to your assistant to drive a marking pin into the
ground at the point where he was standing, and to move onto
the next point to be measured.
25. Move up to the marking pin and repeat the procedure as
many times as necessary. For the greatest accuracy, each
distance you measure along the line should not exceed 30 m.
Measuring distances on sloping ground
26. If you are taking a measurement on a slope greater than 5 percent, you must
correct the clisimeter reading to get the true horizontal distance. To do this, you
need to use a mathematical formula,

1.8 How to measure distances by the stadia method

The stadia method is rapid and
accurate for measuring long distances,
but to apply this method, you need to
get expensive surveying
equipment and learn how to use it.
Therefore, only a brief description of
the method is given here so that you
can understand its basic principles.
1. The equipment used with this method
includes a highly technical sighting device
called a telescope. To use it, you must sight
through two crossed hairs; there are also
two extra horizontal hairs called stadia
hairs. Most surveyor's levels have these
stadia hairs at an equal distance above and
below the horizontal cross-hair.
2. To measure a distance, 
you will also need a levelling staff which is
clearly graduated in centimetres.
3. Set up the surveyor's level at the point from which you will measure the
distance. Signal to your assistant to place the levelling staff vertically at the next
point of the line. The distance between you and the staff may be several hundred
metres.
4. Look through the telescope and read the Example
graduations (in metres) on the levelling staff  Upper stadia hair reading: 1.62 m;
 Lower stadia hair reading: 0.52 m;
that line up with the upper stadia hair and
 Stadia interval = 1.62 m - 0.52 m =
the lower stadia hair. Note these 1.10 m;
measurements down in your field-book.  Stadia factor = 100;

5. Subtract the smaller reading from the larger Distance AB = 1.10 m x 100 = 110 m.
reading. This represents the interval between
the two hairs, called the stadia interval.
6. To find the distance (in metres), multiply the stadia interval by a fixed
value called the stadia factor. It is given for each telescope, but on
most instruments this factor equals 100.
Note: if you are working on sloping ground, 
you must correct this figure to find the true horizontal distance.
1.9 How to measure distances that run through obstacles
1. To use the preceding methods, you must
be able to walkover the whole length of
each straight line and take direct
measurements. Sometimes, however, there
is an obstacle on the line that makes
measuring the distance directly impossible.
Such a line could be across a body of water
such as a lake, a lagoon or a river, or
across agricultural fields with standing
crops. In these cases, you must
take indirect measurements of a segment
of the line. You will use some of 
the methods you learned in Section 1.6 for
setting out a line across an obstacle.
Measuring a distance across a lake or
an agricultural field
2. From point A on the line XY running
through the obstacle, set out another
straight line AZ, avoiding the obstacle.
3. On this new line, layout a 
perpendicular line CB joining the original
line at point B behind the obstacle.
4. Measure the two new line sections AC
and CB and calculate the unknown
distance AB from a mathematical formula
as follows:

AB = (AC2 + BC2)
Measuring a distance across a river
5. Here, the obstacle (a river) cannot be
avoided, but you can see the points you need to
measure from both sides of the river. There are
several methods, based on geometry, which can
be used. Two simple ones are described here.
6. Method 1. You need to measure distance GH
across a river. Using ranging poles, prolong line
GH back to point C. At G and C, lay out
perpendiculars GZ and CX. On each of these
lines, set out a point, E and F, so that they lie
on a straight line FY passing through H, on
the opposite bank. Measure accessible
distances GE, GC and CF. Calculate the
inaccessible distance GH as:
GH = (GE x GC) �(CF - GE)
Example
You wish to measure GH, across a river:
 prolong line GH back to C;
 lay out perpendiculars GZ and CX;
 select points F and E on line FEH;
 measure distances GE = 34 m; GC = 36 m; CF = 54 m;
 calculate GH = (34 m x 36 m) � (54 m - 34 m);
GH = 1 224 m � 20 m = 61.2 m.
7. Method 2. You need to measure distance
AB across a river. Layout line BX
perpendicular to AB on one river bank.
Determine the point C of this perpendicular
from which you will be able to sight point A
across the river, using a 45-degree angle
 (see, for example, Section 3.6, step 63).
Measure distance CB, which is equal to
inaccessible distance AB.
Example
You need to measure distance AB:
 from B, lay out perpendicular BX;
 determine C, so that angle BCA =
45 degrees;
 measure BC = 67 m;
distance AB = BC = 67 m.