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20ME901 – AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

Department: Mechanical Engineering

Batch/Year: Mechanical/III
Created by: Dr. R.Suresh Kumar
Date:25.07.2022
 Table of Contents

S.NO CONTENTS PAGE NO

1 Course Objectives 06

2 Pre Requisites 07

3 Syllabus 08

4 Course outcomes 10

5 CO- PO/PSO Mapping 11

6 Lecture Plan 12

7 Activity based learning 13

8 Lecture Notes 16

9 Assignments 68

10 Part A Q & A 71

11 Part B Qs 76

12 Supportive online Certification courses 78

13 Real time Applications in day to day life and to Industry 79

14 Contents beyond the Syllabus 82

15 Assessment Schedule 84

16 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 85

17 Mini Project suggestions 86

 Course Objectives

Explain the vehicle construction, aerodynamics and working

principle of various parts of an IC Engine.

Describe an Electronic Engine Management system.

Explain the working principle of various parts of Transmission

systems.

Discuss the construction and working principle of steering, brakes

and suspension systems.

Distinguish the construction and working principle of Hybrid

vehicle, E-vehicle and Autonomous vehicle.
 Pre Requisites

MODE OF DELIVERY: ASSESSMENT COMPONENTS:

MD 1. Oral presentation AC 1. Unit Test
MD 2. Tutorial AC 2. Assignment
MD 3.Course Seminar AC 3. Internal Assessment Exam
AC 4.Model Examination
20ME901 AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING LTPC 3003
OBJECTIVES:
Explain the vehicle construction, aerodynamics and working principle of various parts of
an IC Engine.
Describe an Electronic Engine Management system.
Explain the working principle of various parts of Transmission systems.
Discuss the construction and working principle of steering, brakes and suspension
systems.
Distinguish the construction and working principle of Hybrid vehicle, E-vehicle and
Autonomous vehicle.

UNIT I VEHICLE STRUCTURE AND ENGINES 9

Types of automobiles vehicle construction and different layouts, chassis, frame and

body, Vehicle aerodynamics (various resistances and moments involved), IC engines

–components-functions and materials, variable valve timing (VVT).

UNIT II ENGINE AUXILIARY SYSTEMS 9

Electronically controlled gasoline injection system for SI engines, Electronically

controlled diesel injection system (Unit injector system, Rotary distributor type and

common rail direct injection system), Electronic ignition system (Transistorized coil

ignition system, capacitive discharge ignition system), Turbo chargers (WGT, VGT),

Engine emission control by three way catalytic converter system, Emission norms

(BS -VI). AUTOTRONICS: An overview of basic electrical components and circuits

in an automobile - overview of vehicle electronic systems.

UNIT III TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS 9

Clutch-types and construction, gear boxes- manual and automatic, gear shift

mechanisms, Over drive, transfer box, fluid flywheel, torque converter, propeller

shaft, slip joints, universal joints, Differential and rear axle, Hotchkiss Drive and

Torque Tube Drive.

UNIT IV STEERING, BRAKES AND SUSPENSION SYSTEMS 9

Steering geometry and types of steering gear box-Power Steering, Types of Front

Axle, Types of Suspension Systems, Pneumatic and Hydraulic Braking Systems,

Antilock Braking System (ABS), electronic brake force distribution (EBD) and Traction

Control.
UNIT V ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES & ADVANCES IN AUTOMOBILE

ENGINEERING 9

Use of Natural Gas, Liquefied Petroleum Gas, Bio-diesel, Bio-ethanol, Gasohol and

Hydrogen in Automobiles- Engine modifications required –Performance, Combustion

and Emission Characteristics of SI and CI engines with these alternate fuels - Electric

and Hybrid Vehicles, Fuel Cell. Introduction about Connected Vehicles – The Future

of Transportation, Future of Autonomous Vehicles - ADAS – Safe and efficient drive,

IoT Enhanced Mobility.

Note: Practical Training in dismantling and assembling of Engine parts and Transmission
Systems should be given to the students.

TOTAL: 45 PERIODS

OUTCOMES:

Upon the completion of this course the students will be able to

CO1 Recognize the various parts of the automobile and their functions and

materials.

CO2 Discuss the engine auxiliary systems and engine emission control.

CO3 Distinguish the working of different types of transmission systems.

CO4 Explain the Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems.

CO5 Predict possible alternate sources of energy for IC Engines.

CO6 Explain the upcoming technology related to E – Vehicle and Autonomous

vehicle.

TEXT BOOKS:

1. Jain K.K. and Asthana .R.B, “Automobile Engineering” Tata McGraw Hill Publishers,
New Delhi, 2002.

2. Kirpal Singh, “Automobile Engineering”, Vol 1 & 2, Seventh Edition, Standard

Publishers, New Delhi, 13th Edition 2014.

3. Rajput R.K., A Text book of Automobile Engineering, 2nd Edition, Laxmi Publication,
New Delhi, 2014.
REFERENCES:
1.Ganesan V. “Internal Combustion Engines”, Third Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2012.
2.Heinz Heisler, “Advanced Engine Technology,” SAE International Publications USA,
1998.
3.Joseph Heitner, “Automotive Mechanics,” Second Edition, East-West Press, 1999.
4.Martin W, Stockel and Martin T Stockle , “Automotive Mechanics Fundamentals,”
The Good heart - Will Cox Company Inc, USA ,1978.
5. Newton ,Steeds and Garet, “Motor Vehicles”, Butterworth Publishers,1989.
6.nptel.ac.in/courses/125106002/
7.nptel.ac.in/courses/108103009/module2/lec4/1.html
8. nptel.ac.in/courses/112104033/39
9. nptel.ac.in/courses/112104033/pdf_lecture/lecture40.pdf

Course outcomes
After successful completion of the course, the students should
be able to

Highest
CO No. Course Outcomes Cognitive
Level

Recognize the various parts of the automobile and their

C303.1 K2
functions and materials.
Discuss the engine auxiliary systems and engine
C303.2 K2
emission control.
Distinguish the working of different types of
C303.3 K2
transmission systems.

C303.4 Explain the Steering, Brakes and Suspension Systems. K2

Predict possible alternate sources of energy for IC

C303.5 K2
Engines.
Explain the upcoming technology related to E – Vehicle
C303.6 K2
and Autonomous vehicle.
 CO- PO/PSO Mapping

Program Specific
Program Outcomes Outcomes

Cours K3,
K3 K4 K4 K5 A3 A2 A3 A3 A3 A3 A2 K4 K4 K4
e Out Level K5, K6
Come of CO

s
PO-1 PO-2 PO-3 PO-4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7 PO-8 PO-9 PO-10 PO-11 PO-12 PSO-1 PSO-2 PSO-3

K2                  
C303. 2 2 2
1 1   1
K2                    
C303. 2 2
2 1   1
K2 2       2         2    
C303.
3 1   1
K2                    
C303. 2 2
4     1
K2 2 1               2    
C303.
5 1   1
K3 2 1 1             2    
C303.
6 1   1
           
C303   2 1 1 2 2 2
1   1
 UNIT II ENGINE AUXILIARY SYSTEMS

S.N Topic No. of Propos Actual pertai Taxon Mode

o Perio ed Lecture ning omy of
ds date Date CO level Deliver
y

1 Introduction, 1 CO2 K2 MD1

drawbacks of
carburetor
2 Types of Injection 1 CO2 K2 MD1
systems
3 Electronically 1 CO2 K2 MD1
controlled gasoline
injection system for SI
engines
4 Electronically 1 CO2 K2 MD1
controlled diesel
injection system
5 Unit injector system, 1 CO2 K2 MD1
Rotary distributor type
and common rail
direct injection system

6 Electronic ignition 1 CO2 K2 MD1

system (Transistorized
coil ignition system,
capacitive discharge
ignition system)

7 Turbo chargers (WGT, 1 CO2 K2 MD1

VGT)

8 Engine emission 1 CO2 K2 MD1

control by three way
catalytic converter
system

9 Emission norms 1 CO2 K2 MD1

(Euro and BS).

Activity based learning

Cross word puzzle - Auto Tech

Cross word puzzle - Solution
UNIT II ENGINE AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
 LECTURE NOTES
Variable Jet Carburetor

Variable jet carburetors are widely used in two wheeler engines. In this type of
carburetor, the venturi area is variable and is controlled by a movable piston. An air
vent maintains atmospheric pressure in the space below the piston and a vacuum
port transfers the depression (vacuum) from the mixing chamber (the space
between the venturi and throttle) to the space above the piston.

When the air is flowing through the carburetor there is a difference in pressure
between the air horn and the mixing chamber. This difference in pressure acts on
the piston and will give an upward force to oppose the downward force caused by
the piston weight and light spring. When the upward force due to air pressure
difference in increased by opening the throttle, the piston will rise and the choke
(venturi) area will enlarge. Similarly, when the throttle closes, the mixing chamber
depression reduces, the piston falls and the choke area decreases.

As a tapered needle is attached to the piston, the rise or fall of the piston will vary
the effective area of the petrol jet. By altering the taper of the needle it is possible to
vary the fuel flow to suit the quantity of the air being supplied at any speed.
Idling

 When the throttle valve is closed so that the engine is idling, there is very little
vacuum on the throttle valve side. So the piston spring pushes the piston down to its
lowest side. The space between it and the lower floor of the throttle body is small.
Only a little air can pass through. At the same time, the tapered needle valve is well
down in the fuel jet so only a little gasoline can feed to the passing air. The resulting
mixture is for engine idling.

Cold Starting

 A lever operated by a cable lowers the fuel jet in relation to the needle. This enlarges
the jet opening and increases the amount of fuel which will enrich the mixture for cold
starting.

 Electronic Fuel Injection

 In trying to keep up with emissions and fuel efficiency laws, the fuel system used in
modern cars has changed a lot over the years. Fuel injection is not a new
development. Fuel injection has been around since the 1950s, and electronic fuel
injection was used widely on European cars starting around 1980. Now, almost all the
cars sold in all over world have fuel injection systems.

Before switching over to electronic fuel injection system, we should know the practical
difficulties faced in the carburetors.

A carburetor is a mechanical device. It is neither totally accurate nor

particularly fast at responding to changing engine needs. The intake manifold is also a
mechanical device and usually the following problems occur.

•Intake manifold distribution problems - Supply of different mixture strength to the

engine cylinders for the same operating condition - MALDISTRIBUTION

•Intake manifold is to be designed for the smooth flow of both fuel and air, which is
very difficult.

The result, when these two devices are used together, is an engine that does not run
efficiently at low and high speeds.

If the air-fuel mixture can be precisely controlled and the distribution to the
cylinders can be made more efficient, then today’s strict emissions standards can be
met, while at the same time the engine will run better and consume less fuel. Fuel
injection is one of the best ways to get this precise control.
Advantages of EFI

Fuel injection systems offer several major advantages over carburetors.

•Equal air-fuel ratio to all the cylinders
•Accurate air-fuel ratio can be obtained throughout all engine rpm changes
•Better cold starting
•This system monitors all essential engine operating data (e.g. engine speed,
load, temperature, throttle valve) for precise adaptation to stationary and
dynamic operating conditions, thereby ensuring that the engine receives only
the amount of fuel that is actually requires under any given circumstances. This
reduces fuel consumption with no loss of engine performance.
•By maintaining a precise air-fuel ratio according to engine requirements,
exhaust emissions are lowered. The improved air-fuel flow in an injection
system also helps to reduce emission levels.
•10% advance of fuel economy over previous carbureted systems
•Quick response
Working Principle

 In EFI system, a high-pressure electric fuel pump is located in or near the fuel tank.
The pump sends fuel from the tank through the fuel-pressure regulator to the
injectors at constant high pressure all the time the engine runs. Injector is operated
by a small electric solenoid. When the solenoid is connected to the battery, it pulls
back on the nozzle needle, opening the valve. Now fuel can spray out of the valve.
Various sensors located on the engine detect the operating mode of the engine and
signal this condition to the electronic control unit (ECU). It processes the
information. Then the ECU computes when and for how long the injectors should be
opened. The ECU sends a voltage pulse to the injectors. The voltage pulse causes
the injectors to remain open for the required time. To increase engine speed, the
pulse width increases so that injectors stay open longer. If less fuel is needed, the
pulse width decreases. Therefore the injectors close earlier and engine speed
decreases.
Engine Sensors in EFI System

 In order to provide the correct amount of fuel for every operating condition, the
engine control unit (ECU) has to monitor a huge number of input sensors. Here are
just a few:

Mass airflow sensor - Tells the ECU the mass of air entering the engine.

Oxygen sensor - Monitors the amount of oxygen in the exhaust so the ECU can
determine how rich or lean the fuel mixture is and make adjustments accordingly.

Throttle position sensor - Monitors the throttle valve position (which determines
how much air goes into the engine) so the ECU can respond quickly to changes,
increasing or decreasing the fuel rate as necessary.

Coolant temperature sensor - Allows the ECU to determine when the engine has
reached its proper operating temperature.

Voltage sensor - Monitors the system voltage in the car so the ECU can raise the
idle speed if voltage is dropping (which would indicate a high electrical load).

Manifold absolute pressure sensor - Monitors the pressure of the air in the
intake manifold. The amount of air being drawn into the engine is a good indication
of how much power it is producing; and the more air that goes into the engine, the
lower the manifold pressure, so this reading is used to gauge how much power is
being produced.

Engine speed sensor - Monitors engine speed, which is one of the factors used to
calculate the pulse width.

Types of Fuel Injection

  There are two basic types of gasoline fuel-injection systems, Throttle body
injection and multi-point injection. At first, carburetors were replaced with throttle
body fuel injection (TBI) systems. Gradually, as new engines were designed,
throttle body fuel injection was replaced by multi point fuel

 Injection (MPFI).

 The difference is in how many places fuel (under pressure) is injected into the
engine. In single-point system, fuel enters the intake air at only one place. This is
usually the throttle body on the intake manifold. In the multi-point system, fuel is
injected into the intake air for each cylinder.
Single-Point Injection System

It is also known as throttle body injection (TBI), central fuel injection (CFI) or digital
fuel injection (DFI). In 1980, this system was introduced. The system has one or two
small injection valves positioned just above the throttle valves in the throttle body.
The throttle body is similar to the carburetor throttle body. There they spray fuel into
the air stream passing through.

The drawback of this system is maldistribution is not eliminated totally.

Multi-Point Fuel Injection System (MPFI)

It is also known as port injection. Multi-point injection systems have a fuel injector
for each cylinder. Each injector is placed so that it points at the intake valve for the
cylinder. The injectors are connected to fuel rails that are connected through a fuel
filter to an electric fuel pump. Only air enters the intake manifold. Then as the air
approaches the intake valves, injection valves open to spray fuel into the air stream.
The maldistribution problem is completely eliminated with MPFI systems. These
systems provide more accurate fuel metering and quicker response.
Diesel Injection Systems:

 A typical arrangement of various components for the Solid Injection System use in a
C I engine. Fuel from the fuel tank first enters the course filter from which is drawn
into the plunges feed pump where the pressure is raised very slightly. Then the fuel
enters the fine filter where all the dust and dirt particles are removed. From the fine
filter the fuel enters the fuel pump where it is pressurized to about 200 bar and
injected into the engine cylinder by means of the injector. Any spill over in the
injector is returned to the fine filter. A pressure relief valve is also provided for the
safety of the system.

 Functional requirements of an injection system

 (1) Accurate metering of the fuel injected/cycle. The quantity of the fuel metered
should vary to meet changing speed and load requirements.

(2) Timing of the fuel injection in the cycle.

(3) Proper control of rate of injection.

(4) Proper atomization of fuel into very fine droplets.

(5) Uniform distribution of fuel droplets throughout the combustion chamber.

(6) To supply equal quantities of mixed fuel to all cylinders in case of multi cylinder
engines.

 Types of injection systems

 (1) Air injection system:

 The fuel is metered and pumped to the fuel valve by a cam shaft driver fuel pump.
The fuel valve is opened by means of a mechanical linkages operated by cam shaft
which controls the timing of injection. The fuel valve is also connected to high
pressure air live feed by a multi stage compressor which supplied air at a pressure of
about 60-70 bar. When the fuel valve is opened the blast air sweeps the fuel along
with it and a well-atomized fuel spray is sent to the combustion chamber.

(2) Solid injection:

 Injection of fuel directly into the combustion chamber without primary atomization.
Every solid injection system must have,

(1) a pressure unit (pump)

(2) an atomizing unit (Injector)

Classification

 (a) Individual pump & injector or jerk pump system.

(b) Common rail system.

(c) Distributor system

 (a) Individual pump & injector or jerk pump system:

 In the individual pump and injector or jerk pump system a separate metering and
compression pump is used for each cylinder. The pump which meters the fuel also
times of injection.

(b) Common rail system:

 A high pressure fuel pump delivery fuel to an “accumulator”, whose pressure is kept
constant with the help of pressure regulating valve. The high pressure pump usually
has a number of plugs and unlike the individual pump system none of the plugs in
identified with a particular cylinder. Accumulator is connected to different distributing
elements of each cylinder.
(c) Distributor system:

 In this system the pump which pressurizes the fuel and also meters it. Timing of
injection also set by the pump accessory. The fuel pump after meeting the required
amount of fuel supplies it to a rotating distributor at the correct time for supply to
each cylinder. The number of injection strokes /cylinder of the pump is equal to the
number of cylinders.

Fuel injection pumps:

  Modern C.I.Engines are fitted with either an 1. In-line pump (or) 2.
Distributor pump.
 1. In – line type fuel injection pump:

  Figure shows In-line type fuel injection pump. The purpose of the fuel
pump is to meter the correct quantity of fuel and deliver it at the correct time to the
engine cylinder according to the varying load and speed condition.

  The pump consists of a plunger, spring, toothed control sleeve, inlet port,
outlet port (or) spill port and delivery valve. The plunger is driven by a cam and
tappet mechanism at the bottom. The plunger reciprocates in the barrel. The
plunger has a rectangular vertical groove. The groove extends from the top to
another helical groove. The delivery valve is lifted off its seat under the pressure of
the fuel against the spring. The fuel from the delivery valves goes to the injector.

  When the plunger is at the bottom of its stroke, the inlet port (supply port)
and outlet port (spill port) are uncovered. The fuel from a low pressure pump after
filtration is forced into the barrel. Now the plunger pushed up by the cam movement
and both the ports are closed. On further movement of plunger, the fuel above it is
compressed which lifts the delivery valve. The fuel goes through the valve to the
injector.
The plunger moves up still further. At a particular moment the helical groove connects
the spill port through rectangular groove to the fuel in the upper port of the plunger.
Consequently there is a sudden pressure drop due to which the delivery valve falls
back on its seat under the spring force. The pressure in the delivery pipe also drops.
Thus the discharge from the nozzle of the injector is cut off suddenly. The cycle is
repeated again and again.

  During each stroke of the plunger the duration of the delivery is more or
less according as the spill port is made to communicate earlier or later. This depends
upon the position of the helical groove. The position can be changed by rotating the
plunger by the rack.

  The rack is connected to the accelerator. It meshes with a gear quadrant.

The motion of the rack rotates the gear quadrant. Thereby the plunger rotates.

2. Distributor type fuel injection pump:

  The unit resembles the distributor used on a petrol engine. A single –

element, opposed plunger pumping unit supplies fuel to the engine of a four or six
cylinders. All other parts are the same for both engines except for the cam and the
number of ports.

The figure (a) shows a typical fuel system. The feed pump supplies fuel
through a filter to a sliding vane transfer pumps. This pump directs the fuel through a
driver – controlled metering valve to the rotor. Transfer pump pressure is limited by a
regulating valve.

The quantity of fuel delivered to the injector is governed by the position of

the metering valve. Figure shows a partly opened valve restricting the flow of fuel to
the rotor. This reduction in fuel flow prevents the full outward travel of the plungers.
Hence, the shortened stroke gives less fuel and lower engine power.
In the pump unit two plungers are mounted in a rotor. The rotor rotates in a fixed hydraulic
head. Ports in the head and rotor, line up in certain positions to allow either inward or
outward flow of oil. Figure (b) shows the inlet port open pressure from a transfer pump,
fitted at the end of the main pump, directs fuel along the centre of the rotor. The
pressurized fuel pushes out the plungers. Figure (c) shows that the uncovered outlet port
will allow the cam to force the plungers together and discharge the fuel to the injector.

3. Common Rail Diesel Injection:

 Diesel engines have historically used various forms of fuel injection. Two common types
include the unit injection system and the distributor/inline pump systems. While these older
systems provided accurate fuel quantity and injection timing control, they were limited by
several factors:

1. They were cam driven and injection pressure was proportional to engine speed. This
typically meant that the highest injection pressure could only be achieved at the highest
engine speed and the maximum achievable injection pressure decreased as engine speed
decreased. This relationship is true with all pumps, even those used on common rail
systems; with the unit or distributor systems, however, the injection pressure is tied to the
instantaneous pressure of a single pumping event with no accumulator and thus the
relationship is more prominent and troublesome.

 
2. They were limited in the number and timing of injection events that could be
commanded during a single combustion event. While multiple injection events are
possible with these older systems, it is much more difficult and costly to achieve.

3. For the typical distributor/inline system, the start of injection occurred at a pre-
determined pressure (often referred to as: pop pressure) and ended at a pre-
determined pressure. This characteristic resulted from "dummy" injectors in the
cylinder head which opened and closed at pressures determined by the spring
preload applied to the plunger in the injector. Once the pressure in the injector
reached a pre-determined level, the plunger would lift and injection would start.

In common rail systems, a high pressure pump stores a reservoir of fuel at high
pressure — up to and above 2,000 bars (29,000 psi). The term "common rail" refers
to the fact that all of the fuel injectors are supplied by a common fuel rail which is
nothing more than a pressure accumulator where the fuel is stored at high pressure.
This accumulator supplies multiple fuel injectors with high pressure fuel. This
simplifies the purpose of the high pressure pump in that it only has to maintain a
commanded pressure at a target (either mechanically or electronically controlled).
The fuel injectors are typically ECU-controlled. When the fuel injectors are electrically
activated, a hydraulic valve (consisting of a nozzle and plunger) is mechanically or
hydraulically opened and fuel is sprayed into the cylinders at the desired pressure.
Since the fuel pressure energy is stored remotely and the injectors are electrically
actuated, the injection pressure at the start and end of injection is very near the
pressure in the accumulator (rail), thus producing a square injection rate. If the
accumulator, pump and plumbing are sized properly, the injection pressure and rate
will be the same for each of the multiple injection events.
Unit Injector System (UIS)

 Unit Injector System (UIS) and the Unit Pump System (UPS) are among the most
significant innovations in this field. They inject precisely the right amount of fuel
individually into each cylinder, at very high pressure, and at exactly the right moment in
time. This results in considerably more efficient combustion than is the case with
conventional injection systems. This, in turn, equates to higher output, less fuel
consumption, and lower levels of noise and exhaust-gas emissions.

 Operating concept

 Main injection

The function of these single-cylinder injection- pump systems can be subdivided into four
operating states (Fig. 1):

 Suction stroke (a)

The follower spring (3) forces the pump plunger (2) upwards. The fuel in the fuel
supply's low-pressure stage is permanently under pressure and flows from the low-
pressure stage into the solenoid valve chamber (6) via the bores in the engine block and
the inlet passage (7).

 Initial stroke (b)

The actuating cam (1) continues to rotate and forces the pump plunger downwards. The
solenoid valve is open so that the pump plunger can force the fuel through the fuel-
return passage (8) into the fuel supply's low-pressure stage.
Delivery stroke and injection of fuel (c)

At a given instant in time, the ECU outputs the signal to energize the solenoid-valve coil
(9) so that the solenoid-valve needle is pulled into the seat (10) and the connection
between the high-pressure chamber and the low-pressure stage is closed. This instant in
time is designated the “electrical start of injection” or “Beginning of the Injection Period”,
BIP, (also known as the “Begin of injection period”). The closing of the solenoid-valve
needle causes a change of coil current. This is recognized by the ECU (BIP detection) as
the actual start of delivery and is taken into account for the next injection process.
Further movement of the pump plunger causes the fuel pressure in the high-pressure
chamber to increase, so that the fuel pressure in the injection nozzle also increases.
Upon reaching the nozzle-needle opening pressure of approx. 300 bars, the nozzle
needle (11) is lifted from its seat and fuel is sprayed into the engine's combustion
chamber (this is the so-called “actual start of injection” or start of delivery). Due to the
pump plunger's high delivery rate, the pressure continues to increase throughout the
whole of the injection process.

Residual stroke (d)

As soon as the solenoid-valve coil is switched off, the solenoid valve opens after a brief
delay and opens the connection between the high-pressure chamber and the low-
pressure stage. The peak injection pressure is reached during the transitional phase
between delivery stroke and residual stroke. Depending upon pump type, it varies
between max. 1800 and 2050 bar. As soon as the solenoid valve opens, the pressure
collapses abruptly, and when the nozzle-closing pressure is dropped below, the nozzle
closes and terminates the injection process. The remaining fuel which is delivered by the
pumping element until the cam's Crown Point is reached is forced into the low-pressure
stage via the fuel-return passage. These single-cylinder injection systems are intrinsically
safe. In other words, in the unlikely event of a malfunction, one uncontrolled injection of
fuel is the most that can happen. For instance: If the solenoid valve remains open, no
injection can take place since the fuel flows back into the low-pressure stage and it is
impossible for pressure to be built up. And since the high-pressure chamber can only be
filled via the solenoid valve, when this remains closed no fuel can enter the high-
pressure chamber. In this case, at the most only a single injection can take place.The
unit injector is installed in the engine's cylinder head and is therefore subject to very
high temperatures. In order to keep its temperatures as low as possible, it is cooled by
the fuel flowing back to the low-pressure stage. Special measures applied in the fuel
inlet to the unit injector ensure that differences in fuel temperature from cylinder to
cylinder are kept to a minimum.
Operating states:
a. Suction stroke, b. Initial stroke, c. Prestroke, d. Residual stroke.

 1. Actuating cam, 2. Pump plunger, 3. Follower spring, 4. High pressure chamber, 5.
Solenoid – valve needle, 6. Solenoid – valve chamber, 7. Feed passage, 8. Fuel return
passage, 9. Coil,

10. Solenoid – valve seat, 11. Nozzle assembly.

 Is Coil Current, hM Solenoid valve needle stroke, pe Injection pressure, hN Nozzle needle
stroke

 IGNITION SYSTEM

For burning of air-fuel mixture a system known as ignition system is employed on the
engines. It is a part of electric system of the automobile. The purpose of this is to
produce high voltage surges up to 20000 volts to cause electric sparks in the
combustion chambers. These sparks set fire the air fuel mixture in the combustion
chamber so that it burns and causes the engine to operate. The ignition system is
composed of the following components.

(i) Storage battery

(ii) Ammeter

(iii) Ignition switch

(iv) Ignition coil

(v) Distributor

(vi) Spark plug.

A typical ignition circuit of fait car is shown in the above fig.

A simplified lines diagram is shown in fig.

Ignition Switch

 The ignition switch is a part of the primary ignition circuit. When the key in the car
is turned “ON’, the circuit is completed and the current starts flowing, and when the
key is turned “OFF” l the circuit is broken and flow of current stops.

The Distributor

 The job of the distributor is to open and close the circuit to build up and collapse
the magnetic field and to distribute the high tension voltage to the various sparking
plugs. A typical distributor is shown in fig.
The rotor inside the distributor (connected to the high voltage secondary winding of the
ignition coil) turns so that it neatly makes contact with each of the spark-plug wires one
at a time coming out of the distributor. These wires permit the high voltage developed
by the secondary coil to be sent to each of the spark-plugs at the proper time.

The breaker cam inside the distributor is rotated by the engine, opens and closes the
breaker points to complete or break the primary circuit.

The ignition distributor performs three very important functions as part of ignition
system. These are:

1. Opens and closes the contact point in the primary circuit, resulting in producing of a
high voltage in the secondary circuit of a coil.

2. Distributes the high voltage to the proper plug to ignite the ‘charge’ in the engine
cylinder.

3. Helps in advancing or retarding the ignition timing in relation to engine speed by

means of centrifugal advance, vacuum advance or combination of both mechanisms.

The main components of the distributor are: the shaft, breaker cam, advance
mechanism, breaker points and plate, rotor and the distributor cap. The shaft and the
breaker cam are rotated at half the engine speed by the cam shaft or by oil pump
drive.

Capacitor

 It is connected across the distributor contact points. It aids in producing a high voltage
in the coil by causing a sharp collapse of magnetic field and prevents arcing across the
breaker points by providing an alternating path for the current to flow when the contact
breaker points open.

 
Ignition coil

 The function of ignition coil is to transform or step up 6 or 12 volts from the battery to the
high voltage (about 20000 volts) required jumping the spark off the spark plug gap located in
the combustion chamber. Air fuel mixture between the two electrodes offers a very high
resistance for the current to flow. Therefore, voltage must be very high to enable it to push the
current from the centre to the ground electrode.

An ignition coil is shown in fig. It contains two windings namely the primary and secondary
windings. The secondary winding is of 20000-25000 turns of fine wire. It is not electrically
connected to primary winding. The secondary winding is situated close to the core. Its one end
is connected to the secondary terminal and the other end is ground to the case. The primary
winding is of 200-300 turns of heavy wire and is wound around the outside of the secondary
winding.

The ends of the primary winding are connected to the outside terminals. The bakelite cape
serves the function of insulating the secondary terminal from the container and the primary
terminals. To provide better electrical insulation and to increase their ability to dissipate heat,
some coils are filled with oil.

Action of an ignition coil is explained as below. When the ignition switch is closed and the
distributor contact points are also closed, the current flows in the primary windings, so
magnetic field is build up.

When the distributor contact points open and the current stops flowing, the magnetic field
suddenly collapses. The rapid collapses of the magnetic field cause the magnetic lines of force
to move rapidly across the thousands of turns of wire with secondary winding. This will induce
a high voltage in the secondary winding. The high voltage applied suddenly to the spark plug,
causes the current to jump across the gap and will produce and electric spark to ignite the air
fuel mixture in the combustion chamber.

 
Spark Plug

 Spark plug is used to produce a spark which ignites the combustible mixture in the
cylinder. It is designed to operate under 20000 to 30000 volts and withstand
pressure up to 40 kg/sq.cm.

A spark plug is shown in fig. 7.10. It consists of a steel shell in which is fastened a
porcelain insulator. An electrode call the centre electrode passes through the centre
of the insulator and extends a little beyond the insulator. Another electrode called
the ground electrode is attached to one side of the shell and is bent is towards the
central electrode. The electrode has to withstand high temperatures and the
corrosive effect of the gases. To prevent corrosion and the destructive effects of the
spark, electrodes are made of special alloys contaminating nickel and manganese.
The recommended gap between the electrodes is from 6mm to 1mm. A spark will
occur when the high secondary voltage will jump across this gap.

 
The steel shell serves as housing and holds the plug together. The upper part of the
shell is hexagonal in shape just like a nut. It provides a surface for the spanner so
that the plug can be screwed into a tapped hole in the cylinder head.

There are upper sealing and lower sealing gaskets between the insulation except
across the electrodes. Any crack developed on the insulator will provide a path of low
electrical resistance and short circuits of the high voltage.

Sometimes carbon may appear on the insulator between the two electrodes this
allows some of the high voltage current to bypass spark plug gap. This will reduce the
intensity of the spark. There will be no proper combustion of fuel mixture and the
engine power will decrease.

The gap between the two electrodes can be measured with a feeler gauge and
adjusted by bending the ground electrode. The spark plug gap in a fiat car is 0.7 mm.
 TYPES OF IGNITION SYSTEM
 There are two types of ignition systems used in petrol engines:
1. Battery ignition system (or coil ignition system).
2. Magneto ignition system

Both the ignition systems are based on the principle of mutual electromagnetic
induction. the battery ignition system is mostly used in passenger cars and light
trucks. In the battery ignition system, the current in the primary winding is supplied
by the battery whereas in magneto ignition system, the magneto produces and
supplies the current in the primary winding.

 Battery Ignition System

 Fig. shows battery ignition system for a four-cylinder engine. It consists of a battery
ammeter, switch, ignition coil, condenser, contact breaker, distributor and spark plug.

The primary ignition circuit starts at the battery and passes through the switch,
ammeter, primary winding, and contact breaker points to the ground. A condenser is
also connected in parallel to the contact breaker points. One end of the condenser is
connected to the contact breaker arm and the other end is grounded.

The secondary ignition circuit is not connected electrically to the primary ignition
circuit. It starts from the ground and passes through the secondary winding,
distributors, spark plug to the ground.
The ignition coil steps up 6 or 12 volts from the battery to the high tension voltage of
about 20,000 to 30,000 volts required to jump the spark at the spark plug gap, which
ignites the combustible charge in the cylinder. The rotor of the distributor revolves
and distributes the current to the four segments which in turn, send it to the spark
plugs. The purpose of the condenser is to reduce arcing at the breaker points and
thereby prolong their life. Because the ignition system is four cylinder engine, the cam
of the contact breaker has four lobes. It makes and breaks the contact of the primary
circuit four times in every revolution of the cam.

When the ignition switch is on, the current will flow from the battery through the
primary winding. It produces magnetic field in the coil. When the contact points open,
the magnetic field collapses and the movement of the magnetic field induces current
in the secondary winding coil. Because the secondary winding has many more turns
(about 21,000 turns) of fine wire (40 SWG), the voltage increases up to 30,000 volts.
The primary winding consists of 2000-300 turns of thick wire (20 SWG). About 15,000
volts are necessary to make the spark jump at 1mm gap. The distributor then directs
this high voltage to the proper spark plug when it jumps the gap, producing a spark
which ignites the combustible mixture in the cylinder.
Magneto Ignition System

 Fig. shows magneto ignition system for a four-cylinder engine. It consists of a

magneto, instead of a battery, which produces and supplied current in the primary
winding. The remaining arrangement in this system is the same as that in the battery.
The magneto consists of a fixed armature having primary and secondary windings and
a rotating magnetic assembly which is driven by the engine. When the magneto
rotates, current flows in the primary winding. The secondary winding gives high
voltage current to the distributor, which distributes it to the respective spark plugs.
In a magneto, the magnetic field is produced by means of permanent magnets
whereas in conventional generator, the magnetic field is produced by passing some
of the generated current through the field winding which produces the magnetic
field.

The magneto may be either rotating armature type or rotating magnet type. IN
rotating armature type magneto, the armature carrying the primary and secondary
winding and the condenser, rotate between the poles of a stationary horse shoe
magnet.

Comparison of Battery Ignition and Magneto Ignition Systems

Battery ignition system Magneto ignition system

Current is obtained from the battery Current is generated by the magneto
Sparing is good even at low speed Poor sparking at low speed
Starting of engine is easier Difficult starting
If the battery is discharged the engine No such difficulty as battery is not needed
Occupies more space Occupies less space
Complicated wiring Simple wiring
Less costly More costly
Spark intensity falls as the engine speed Spark intensity improves as the engine
rises speed rises
Used in cars, buses, trucks Used in motor cycles, scooters, racing car
Electronic ignition system:
 Disadvantage of conventional ignition systems
(a) Because of arcing, pitting of contact breaker point and which will lead to regular
maintenance problems.
(b) Poor starting: After few thousands of kilometers of running, the timing becomes
inaccurate, which results into poor starting (Starting trouble).
(c) At very high engine speed, performance is poor because of inertia effects of the
moving parts in the system.
(d) Some times it is not possible to produce spark properly in fouled spark plugs.
 In order to overcome these drawbacks Electronic Ignition system is used.
 Advantage of electronic ignition system
 (a) Moving parts are absent-so no maintenance.
(b) Contact breaker points are absent-so no arcing.
(c) Spark plug life increases by 50% and they can be used for about 60000 km
without any problem.
(d) Better combustion in combustion chamber, about 90-95% of air fuel mixture is
burnt compared with 70-75% with conventional ignition system.
(e) More power output.
(f) More fuel efficiency.
 TYPES OF ELECTRONIC IGNITION SYSTEM
 Electronic Ignition System is as follow:
 (a) Capacitance Discharge Ignition system
(b) Transistorized system
(c) Piezo-electric Ignition system
(d) The Texaco Ignition system
Capacitance Discharge Ignition System

 It mainly consists of 6-12 V battery, ignition switch, DC to DC convertor, charging

resistance, tank capacitor, Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR), SCR-triggering device,
step up transformer, spark plugs. A 6-12 volt battery is connected to DC to DC
converter i.e. power circuit through the ignition switch, which is designed to give or
increase the voltage to 250-350 volts. This high voltage is used to charge the tank
capacitor (or condenser) to this voltage through the charging resistance. The
charging resistance is also so designed that it controls the required current in the
SCR. Depending upon the engine firing order, whenever the SCR triggering device,
sends a pulse, then the current flowing through the primary winding is stopped. And
the magnetic field begins to collapse. This collapsing magnetic field will induce or
step up high voltage current in the secondary, which while jumping the spark plug
gap produces the spark, and the charge of air fuel mixture is ignited
Transistorized Assisted Contact (TAC) Ignition System
 Advantages
 (a) The low breaker-current ensures longer life.
(b) The smaller gap and lighter point assembly increase dwell time minimize contact
bouncing and improve repeatability of secondary voltage.
(c) The low primary inductance reduces primary inductance reduces primary current
drop-off at high speeds.
 Disadvantages
 (a) As in the conventional system, mechanical breaker points are necessary for
timing the spark.
(b) The cost of the ignition system is increased.
(c) The voltage rise-time at the spark plug is about the same as before.

Piezo-electric Ignition System

 The development of synthetic piezo-electric materials producing about 22 kV by

mechanical loading of a small crystal resulted in some ignition systems for single
cylinder engines. But due to difficulties of high mechanical loading need of the order
of 500 kg timely control and ability to produce sufficient voltage, these systems have
not been able to come up.
The Texaco Ignition System

Due to the increased emphasis on exhaust emission control, there has been a
sudden interest in exhaust gas recirculation systems and lean fuel-air mixtures. To
avoid the problems of burning of lean mixtures, the Texaco Ignition system has been
developed. It provides a spark of controlled duration which means that the spark
duration in crank angle degrees can be made constant at all engine speeds. It is a
AC system. This system consists of three basic units, a power unit, a control unit and
a distributor sensor. This system can give stable ignition up to A/F ratios as high as
24: 1.
 
Turbo charger:
 History
•1885 and 1896, Gottlieb Daimler and Rudolf Diesel experiment with pre-
compressing intake air
•1925 Swiss engineer Albert Buchi develops first exhaust gas turbocharger
which increases power output by 40%
•1938 first commercial Diesel truck application by “Swiss Machine Works Sauer”
•1962 first production application of turbochargers in passenger cars - the
Chevrolet Monza Corvair and the Oldsmobile Jet fire
•1970’s – first oil crisis and increasingly stringent air emission regulations lead
to demands for higher power density as well as higher air delivery. Outcome -
> virtually all current truck engines are turbocharged.
•1978 Mercedes-Benz puts the 300 SD into production marking the appearance
of the first turbocharged Diesel passenger car
•1994 VW introduces the variable geometry turbo in their TDI Diesel engine
significantly improving the transient response of the Diesel engine.

 Power is basically a function of three things:

1.Air density -> boosting
2.Swept volume
3.Engine speed
Type of boosting system
 1.Mechanical – Supercharger

Main problem with supercharging is the parasitic loss of having to drive the
compressor from the engine output shaft. This loss can be up to 15% of engine
output.

 2. Exhaust Gas – Turbocharger

 
Compressor

 It consists of three elements

Compressor wheel
Diffuser
Housing

Turbine

 Turbines consist of turbine wheel and housing

 Thermodynamic Analysis

 30-40% of the fuel energy is released as exhaust gas energy

Area bounded by points 415 is the theoretical energy available. This is sometimes
referred to as blow down losses.

Ideal cycle pressure-volume diagram for a turbocharged engine

Turbochargers Intercooler

Temperatures after the compressor can reach 180 C cooling the air can offer a
significant performance increase.

Simultaneous improvement in output, fuel economy, and emissions

 
Two stage turbocharger with intercooler
Pulse Turbine System
 Advantages:
 T/C responds rapidly to load changes
No auxiliary blowers needed for low loads
High energy input to turbine
 Disadvantages:
 Exhaust pipe work more complex
Turbine efficiency reduces at higher loads due to operating with fluctuating gas flow
Pressure pulses can influence blow down from adjacent cylinders
Turbo charging dictates engine timing
 Constant Pressure System
 Advantages:
 Higher turbine efficiencies at steady loads
Simple pipe work
Good performance at high loads
 Disadvantages:
 Requires auxiliary blowers to assist at low loads
Poor turbine response to load changes
Large space taken up by exhaust receiver
 Advantages of Turbo-charger
 Smaller and lighter than mechanical blower
Less moving parts
No drive required from engine
Can easily deliver the large quantities of air required
Increases thermal efficiency.
Engine emission control by three way catalytic converter system:
 1. Emission

 Our surrounding environment is becoming contaminated day by day, by the

increased addition of domestic as well as industrial wastes to it. The water, air and
land which are essential for the existence of living beings should be in their pure
state. Modern civilization, increasing population and proliferation of industries have
altered the natural environment. The air we breathe, the water we drink and the
places where we live are all contaminated with toxic substances. The increased
addition of these undesirable impurities to water, air and land causes many health
hazards.
Water is polluted by pollutants such as sewage, solid wastes and industrial effluents.
Air is polluted by automobile exhausts and exhaust gases from the industries and
land is polluted by the dumping of domestic and industrial wastes. Control and
prevention of pollution of air, water and land are important because they are vital for
our existence

A pollutant may be defined as the undesirable foreign matter added to the

environment, altering the natural quality of the environment and causing damage to
humans, plants and animals.

Environmental considerations have forced many countries to introduce

regulations to limit the pollution caused by motor-vehicles. It is claimed that
emissions from motor-vehicles damage human health, plant life and the
environment. This problem is particularly severe in areas where the geographic and
climatic conditions create an atmospheric envelope which traps the pollutants.

Area that first introduced stringent controls were Australia, Japan, Sweden
and the USA. In recent years, as these countries lowered the maximum allowable
emission limits, other countries also introduced their own standards. Each year sees
a tightening of the standards, so manufacturers have to update or modify their
vehicles continually to meet the particular requirements laid down for the country in
which the vehicle is to be sold.

 1.1 Air Pollution

The average percentage composition (by volume) of pollution-free dry air is

N2 – 78.09 ; O2 – 20.94 ; Ar – 0.9 and CO 2 – 0.0318

Hydrogen, methane, carbon monoxide, etc are present in very small

amounts. Air pollution is very crucial from public point of view, because every
individual person breathes approximately 22,000 times a day, inhaling about 16 kg
of air daily. Polluted air also affects vegetation, promotes corrosion, blocks out
sunlight and causes deterioration of rubber, paints, etc.

 1.1.1 Automotive Pollution

The major components of automobile exhausts are CO2 and water vapour which are
the products of oxidation of petrol or diesel.

2C8 H18 + 25O2  16CO2 + 18 H2 O

Other constituents are CO, unburnt hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen and sulphur-di-
oxides. The pollutants produced by automobiles are created by the burning or
evaporation of the automobile’s fuel (gasoline or diesel fuel). These can be divided
into three main substances: CO, HC and NOX. These gases are unpleasant to breathe
and are in many cases harmful or even dangerous to human beings, animals or plants.

 1.1.2 Acid Rain

 Acid rain represents one of the major consequences of air pollution. Enormous
emissions of SOX and NOX from big industrial areas pollute the atmosphere greatly. In
these areas, the falling rain reacts with these oxide pollutants to produce a mixture of
sulphuric acid, nitric acid and water. This is known as acid rain.

Acid rain causes extensive damage to buildings and sculptural materials

made up of marble. These materials become pitted and mechanically weak due to the
attack of acidic components. The Tajmahal in India will face a similar threat if proper
measures are not taken.

Acid rain also causes extensive damage to terrestrial ecosystems such as

water, fish, vegetation, mankind, etc. Acidification of soils by means of acid rain leads
to reduced forest productivity. The productivity of fish is also declined due to
acidification of water. The heavy metals released by acid rain may also cause potential
threat to human health. Acidification of drinking water reservoirs and concurrent
increase in heavy metal concentrations may exceed public health limits and may cause
dangerous effects.

The only practical approach to counter the problem of acid rain is to reduce
SOX and NOX emissions. These emissions can be reduced (a) by using low sulphur and
low nitrogen fuels and (b) by generating power by alternate energy sources.

1.1.3 Photochemical Smog

 It is the product of a combination of automobile exhausts and a damp climate. It is

characterized by brown hazy fumes which irritate the eyes, reduce visibility and
damage plants and rubber goods.

 
When NO is emitted into atmosphere, it is slowly oxidized by oxygen to NO 2. The NO2
is dissociated by UV radiations from the sun to give NO and O atoms.
NO2  NO + O
Free oxygen atoms are extremely reactive and combine with molecular O2 to
give ozone.
O + O2  O3
Because ozone is a powerful oxidizing agent, it reacts destructively with
many materials including rubber, paint and vegetation. It also reacts with
hydrocarbons that are released into the atmosphere from automobile exhausts. These
reactions produce a variety of organic molecules such as organic peroxides and
peroxoacetylnitrates which are strong eye irritants.
Photochemical smog was observed in some parts of Los Angles and Denver
in USA and sometimes it is referred to as Los Angles smog. The notorious London
smog of 1952, which lasted for 5 days caused 4000 deaths. Latest destructive smog
was reported from Indonesia in 1998 which caused much damage to man and
property.
 1.1.4 Ozone Hole
 Ozone is an important chemical present in the atmosphere (above 30 km). The ozone
layer present in the atmosphere acts as a protective shield for the life on earth. It
absorbs UV radiations from the sun, thereby protecting life on earth from skin cancer.
Ozone is destroyed by man-made chlorofluorocarbons. The CFC molecules
decompose to release chlorine in the ozone layer and each atom of chlorine thus
liberated attacks several ozone molecules.
Cl + O3  ClO + O2
  Due to this continuous attack, thinning of ozone layer takes place which
leads to the formation of ozone hole.
1.1.5 Greenhouse Effect
 The greenhouse effect may be defined as the progressive warming up of earth’s
surface due to the blanketing effect of man-made CO2 in the atmosphere.
In fact, the greenhouse gases are responsible for keeping our planet warm
and thus sustaining life on earth. The earth is heated by sunlight and some of the
heat that is absorbed by the earth is radiated back into space. However, some of the
gases in the lower atmosphere, acting like glass in a greenhouse, allow solar
radiations, but do not allow the earth to re-radiate the heat into space. In other
words, these gases in the atmosphere are transparent to the sunlight coming in but
they strongly absorb the infrared radiations which the earth sends back as heat. A
part of the heat so trapped in these atmospheric gases is re-emitted to the earth’s
surface. The net result is the heating of the earth’s surface by this phenomenon called
greenhouse effect. The gases that are responsible for this greenhouse effect are CO2,
water vapours, CH4, etc. If the concentration of greenhouse gases is larger, they may
trap too much of heat, which may threaten the very existence of life on earth.

 
It is estimated that the atmospheric CO 2 content is increased by 25 percent during
the last two centuries. This is the reason for the slight increase in the global
temperature (0.5C). The concentration of greenhouse gases is increasing constantly
due to deforestation, industrialization; increased burning of fossil fuels, etc. the CO 2
content in the atmosphere may be doubled within next 50-100 years. If this
happens, the global temperature may increase by 4-5C.
 
1.2 Hydrocarbon (HC):
 Raw Unburnt Gasoline from the Automobile

Sources

• Gasoline is evaporated from the fuel tank and escaped into the atmosphere as
hydrocarbon gas (HC).

• Carburetor emits hydrocarbon gas (HC), which has evaporated mainly from the
float bowl.

•Blowby gas refers to the burnt and unburnt gases that pass between the piston and
the cylinder wall during the compression and ignition cycles and escape into the
atmosphere via the crankcase.
•Raw gas escaped by overlapping of intake and exhaust valve timing.
•Raw gas remaining near the cylinder walls (quenching) after burning and exhausted
during the exhaust cycle.
•Raw gas created by incomplete combustion due to insufficient combustion time or an
over rich air-fuel mixture.
 Effects on Human Health
• Irritates the linings of the respiratory organs
 Effects on the Natural Environment
• Cause of photochemical smog
 1.3 Carbon Monoxide (CO):
 Produced by incomplete combustion due to insufficient air and time for
combustion
•Occurs only in engine exhaust
•High when idling
•Lowest when acceleration and at steady speeds
•Closing of the throttle which reduces the oxygen supply to engine is the main cause of
CO. So deceleration from high speed will produce highest CO in exhaust gases
 Effects on Human Health
• Decreases oxygen carrying capacity of hemoglobin and causes heart
attacks
• Can affect the central nervous system
• It causes shortness of breath and headaches when body movements
are attempted
• At very high concentrations, it can cause death
 1.4 Oxides of Nitrogen (NOX):
 Several different molecular compounds built up from nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2),
such as NO, NO2, N2O, N2O3, etc.
•Produced by nitrogen and oxygen in the air of the air-fuel mixture which combine if the
temperature inside the combustion chamber rises above about 1800C (3300F)
•Reasons for NOX formation – high temperature & oxygen availability
 Effects on Human Health
 
• Irritates the eyes, nose and throat
• If the irritation is severe, it causes coughing, headaches and lung
damage
• Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) can affect the respiratory system
• 
Effects on the Natural Environment
 
•Contribute significantly to acid deposition
•Can also have a fertilizing effects on forests
• 
In addition to the main pollutants, there are also many undesirable substances from
the automobiles:
•SOx – SO2 – Oxides of sulphur
•Pb – lead compounds
•Particulates or Particulate Matter (PM) – Carbonaceous materials
•Non-gaseous material made up of carbon, unburned or partially burnt lubrication oil
and fuel as well as sulphur oxides.
•Soot & smoke – fine carbon particles
 1.5 EURO Emission Standards

Pollutant EURO 1 EURO 2 EURO 3 EURO 4

s
(g/kwh)
CO 4.5 4 2.5 1

HC 1.1 1.1 0.7 0.5

NOX 8 7 <5 <3

PM 0.36 0.15 <0.10 <0.10

2. Emission Control
 The air pollution due to IC engines can be reduced in the following ways.
Modification of IC engines to reduce the amount of pollutants formed during fuel
combustion.
Development of substitute fuels for petroleum based fuels which will yield low
concentration of pollutants during combustion.
Addition of emission control devices to remove or to decompose pollutants into
harmless gases.
 Each car now has three major systems for controlling pollutants.
 2.1 Positive Crankcase Ventilation (PCV)

  This is a system that sends fresh air through the crankcase to sweep out
blowby and fuel vapours. The air then enters the engine where the pollutants from
the crankcase have another chance to burn.
During normal engine operation, some combustion gases leak past the piston rings
(blowby) and tend to pressurize the crankcase. In addition, traces of water appear,
and some unburned fuel may reach the crankcase. Without ventilation, all these
would have a deteriorating effect on the engine oil and also on mechanical parts.
Earlier ventilation systems merely vented the crankcase to the atmosphere, but this
contributed to air pollution. Closed-crankcase ventilation systems were therefore
developed. This type of system is referred to as closed crankcase ventilation or
positive crankcase ventilation (PCV). Clean air is drawn in through the filter in the
air cleaner, where it mixes with the blowby gases in the crankcase. The gases are
then drawn from the crankcase through a flow control valve (PCV valve) into the
intake manifold and then to the combustion chambers, where they are burned.

 2.2 Evaporative Emission Control:

  This is a system that captures any fuel vapours coming from the fuel tank
and float bowl. It prevents the vapours from escaping into the atmosphere.

 2.2.1 Charcoal Canister (some models only)

Harmful hydrocarbon (HC) gas is generated in the fuel tank, and must not be
discharged into the atmosphere. In some engines, such fuel vapour is stored
temporarily in a container when the engine is off and is sent to the combustion
chamber to be burned when the engine is turned on again.

The charcoal canister is one such fuel vapour container. It is filled with activated
charcoal and the fuel vapour is directed into it along with air. The HC gas is
separated from the vapour by the charcoal. When the engine is turned on, the gas is
sent through the carburettor to the combustion chamber where it is burned and
becomes a harmless exhaust gas.

 2.3. Exhaust emission control:

  This includes a variety of systems such as catalytic converters, air-injection

system, exhaust gas recirculation etc. These work together to reduce the pollutants
in the exhaust gas emitted from the tailpipe.

 2.3.1 Air-Injection (AI) & Air-Suction (AS) Systems

In this method, fresh air is supplied to the exhaust manifold by an air injection
pump. So that it provides additional oxygen to burn HC and CO coming out of the
cylinders

 2.3.2 Catalytic Converter:

 
2.3.2 Catalytic Converter:

 
 
 
Catalytic converters provide another way to treat the exhaust gas. These devices
located in the exhaust system, convert harmful gases into harmless gases. Inside
the catalytic converter, the exhaust gases pass over a catalyst. A catalyst is a
material that causes a chemical reaction. In effect, the catalyst encourages
chemicals to react with each other. The metals such as platinum and palladium are
act as oxidizing catalysts and rhodium as reducing catalysts.

The oxidizing converter handles HC and CO, using platinum or palladium as the
catalysts. The air helps the oxidizing catalyst convert the HC and CO into carbon
dioxide and water. The reducing converter handles NO x using metal rhodium. It splits
oxygen from the nitrogen. The NOx becomes harmless nitrogen (N2) and oxygen
(O2).
2.3.3 Exhaust Gas Recirculation

 Oxides of nitrogen can be controlled by diluting air-fuel mixture entering the engine
with an inert or non-combustible substance. During the combustion the inert
substance will absorb a portion of the chemical energy released, thereby reducing
the combustion temperature and consequently NO x emission level.

In the exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) method, a portion of the exhaust gas is
recirculated to the cylinder intake charge. This reduces the peak combustion
temperature, since the inert gas serves as a heat sink. This also reduces the quantity
of oxygen available for combustion.

About 15% recycle will reduce NO x emission by about 80%. The maximum
percentage which can be recirculated is limited by rough engine operation and loss
of power.
AUTOTRONICS: An overview of basic electrical components and circuits

in an automobile

Automotive Electrical Circuits :

Cars and light trucks have extensive electrical systems with lots of wiring and
hundreds of circuits. An electrical circuit is basically a route or path through which
electrons flow. An electrical circuit must form a complete loop so the current will
continue to flow. The electrons need a return path back to their source (the battery
or alternator) otherwise they have no place to go.

There are essentially two kinds of automotive electrical circuits: * A series circuit is
one in which all the circuit elements are connected end-to-end in chain-like fashion.
The current has only one path to follow so the amount of current passing through it
will be the same throughout. The total resistance in a series circuit is equal to the
sum of the individual resistances within each circuit element. If one element in a
series circuit goes bad, continuity is broken and the entire circuit goes dead because
the current cannot complete its journey through the circuit. * A parallel circuit is one
in which circuit elements are connected next to or parallel to one another. This
creates multiple branches or pathways through which current can flow. The
resistance in any given branch will determine the voltage drop and current flow
through that branch and that branch alone. One of the advantages of a parallel
circuit is that the various segments or pathways of the circuit can operate
independently of one another. If one element goes open (breaks continuity), it won't
disrupt the function of the other. Troubleshooting automotive electrical circuits often
requires measuring volts, amps or ohms. These are three basic units of
measurement that are used to describe what goes on inside an electrical circuit.
VOLTS

Voltage is the difference in electrical potential between two points, or the amount of "push"
that makes the electrons flow. It's also called the Electromotive Force (EMF). It is like the
pressure that forces compressed air through a hose, but instead of being measured in
pounds per square inch, voltage is measured in units called Volts.

You can measure volts with a digital or analog voltmeter. For late model vehicles, a digital
voltmeter is recommended because the voltage levels you are measuring often have to be
read down to tenths of a volt (0.1 volt).

All passenger car and light truck electrical systems are 12 volts and have been since the mid-
1950s. The electrical systems are all Negative (-) ground, with the body usually serving as
the ground connection for many electrical circuits. The battery negative cable is attached to
the metal body or chassis, while the positive battery cable (+) is connected to the power side
of the vehicle's electrical circuits and charging system.

Many sensors and sensor circuits use a lower voltage, typically 5 volts, while the ignition coils
generate a very high voltage (5,000 to 35,000 volts) to fire the spark plugs. Hybrid vehicles
use a high voltage (140 to 300 volt) battery, generator and electrical motor for their stop-
start systems and electric drive.

Measuring battery voltage with a digital voltmeter.

Use extreme caution when working around hybrid electrical components (which are usually color coded ORANGE,
and avoid making contact with the ignition coils or spark plug wires when your engine is running to reduce the risk
of being shocked. A shock from a spark plug wire can be painful, but not fatal because the current (amperage) is
low. But a shock from a hybrid battery can be fatal!

AMPS

Current is the amount or volume of electrons that flow through a conductor or a circuit. It is a measure of volume,
and is specified in units called amperes or amps. The analogy with an air hose would be the number of cubic feet
per minute of air passing through the hose. One amp is equal to 6.3 million trillion electrons (6.3 with 18 zeros after
it) flowing past a point in one second! That's a lot of electrons, but a relatively small current in many automotive
circuits. A starter, for example, can draw several hundred amps while cranking the engine.

Amps are measured with an ammeter, or a multimeter that has an amp function. Measuring amps usually requires
using an inductive pickup that is clamped around a wire to measure the current flowing through it, though very
small currents (100 milliamps or less) can often be measured directly through the meter itself without having to use
an inductive pickup.

Fuses are used to protect electrical circuits from dangerous overloads that could cause them to overheat, melt or
catch fire. Fuses are rated according to how many amps they can handle before the fuse blows and stops the flow
of current through the circuit. A blown fuse, therefore, is often an indication of an overloaded circuit or a fault such
as a short that is causing excessive current flow in the circuit. For more information, see the related article on
Power Centers: Relays & Fuses

Overview of vehicle electronic systems.

Caution: If a fuse has blown, replace it one that has the SAME amp rating as the
original. DO NOT substitute a replacement fuse with a higher amp rating as this may
allow the circuit to overheat or suffer damage. And NEVER replace a blown fuse with a
solid wire or conductor as this will prove no overload protection at all.

Ohms

Electrical resistance is the opposition to the flow of current, or the restriction that
impedes the flow of electrons. Resistance is measured in units called ohms. The flow of
air though a hose can be reduced by pinching it, by reducing the diameter of the hose or
by holding your finger over the outlet. Likewise, current flow through a wire can be
slowed or controlled by adding resistance. Resistance can be created by altering the
composition of the material, by decreasing the size of the conductor or wire (smaller
wire has more resistance than larger wire), or by adding heat (heat increases
resistance).

Resistance is measured with an ohmmeter or a multimeter with an ohms function.

Caution: Do NOT attempt to measure resistance (ohms) in any circuit that has voltage or
is on as this may damage the ohmmeter. Resistance is measured when the current is
OFF.

OHMS LAW

One volt equals the amount of force needed to push a one amp current through a circuit
with a resistance of one ohm. This is Ohm's Law, and is named after the scientist who
first figured it out. Ohms Law can be expressed in various ways:

Understanding Ohms Law and the relationships between volts,ohms and amps is the key
to understanding electrical currents and what is happening inside an automotive
electrical circuit. Ohms Law explains why high resistance in a circuit chokes off the
current and causes a voltage drop. It also explains why an electrical short can cause a
wire to rapidly overheat and burn because of a runaway current.
Common Problems in Automotive Electrical Circuits
Shorts are a type of fault that can occur if the current traveling through an electrical
circuit does not pass through the component powered by the circuit, but finds
another path to ground. This can happen if a wire rubs against a sharp edge and
shorts to ground, or the insulation on adjacent wires rubs through or is damaged
allowing current in one wire to jump to an adjacent wire. A short can result in a
runaway current because of reduced resistance in the circuit. This can cause a wire
to rapidly overheat, possibly melting or burning the insulation around it and starting
an electrical fire. A short will usually cause the circuit fuse to blow.
Note: If a circuit has a blown fuse and a new fuse blows as soon as you replace it,
the circuit most likely has a short.
Shorts most often occur where wiring rubs against a sharp metal edge, as where
wiring passes through a bulkhead, the firewall between the engine compartment and
passenger compartment, or door or other body cavity. Rubber grommets are
typically used to protect the wiring in places where the wiring passes through metal
panels. But if the grommet is damaged or missing, the wiring my rub against a sharp
edge and short out.
Shorts can also occur between adjacent wiring if the insulation around the wires is
damaged or cracked. Insulation can become brittle with age and may crack or flake
off the wiring, allowing the bare metal underneath to make electrical contact with
adjacent wires or the body.
Intermittent shorts can occur when wires make intermittent contact as a result of
temperature changes that cause metal to expand and contract, or as a result of
vibration. Finding intermittent shorts can be difficult because the problem comes and
goes. Wiggling and shaking wires, or blowing hot air on them with a hot air gun may
be necessary to simulate the conditions that cause the short to occur.
Shorts can be repaired by wrapping exposed or damaged wiring with electrical tape,
or replacing the damaged wiring.
Opens are another type of fault that can occur in automotive electrical circuits. An
open is just what the name implies: an open in the wiring that stops the flow of
current and kills the circuit. An open will not blow a fuse, but it will prevent the
circuit from functioning. An open may occur if a wire breaks, a wiring connector is
loose or unplugged, or severe corrosion inside an electrical connector has created so
much resistance that current cannot flow through the circuit.
Opens can also occur in electronic circuits if microcracks form in soldered
connections or on printed circuit boards. The circuit may pass current normally when
cold, but as it heats up and expands, the microcracks may open up causing an
intermittent open.
Overloads are a condition that may occur in a circuit when an electric motor or other
device experiences operating conditions that cause it to draw more current than
normal. An example would be a temporary overload in the windshield wiper motor
circuit if the wipers become jammed with ice or heavy snow. An overload may cause
the circuit fuse to blow.
Automotive wiring Diagrams
Wiring diagrams use symbols (see below) to identify various circuit components.
Individual circuits are usually numbered, and the wires in the circuits are color-coded
to make identification easier. When there is a two-color code for a wire, it means the
wire is one color and there is a colored stripe of a different color on that same wire.
overview of vehicle electronic systems.

Electronics have been relatively slow in coming to the automobile primarily because
of the relationship between the added cost and the benefits. Historically, the first
electronics (other than radio) were introduced into the commercial automobile
during the late 1950s and early 1960s.

However, these features were not well received by customers, so they were
discontinued from production automobiles.

Two major events occurred during the 1970s that started the trend toward the use
of modern electronics in the automobile: (1) the introduction of government
regulations for exhaust emissions and fuel economy, which required better control
of the engine than was possible with the methods being used; and (2) the
development of relatively low cost per function solid-state digital electronics that
could be used for engine control.

Electronics are being used now in the automobile and probably will be used even
more in the future. Some of the present and potential applications for electronics
are

1. Electronic engine control for minimizing exhaust emissions and maximizing fuel
economy

2. Instrumentation for measuring vehicle performance parameters and for diagnosis

of on-board system malfunctions

3. Driveline control

4. Vehicle motion control

5. Safety and convenience

6. Entertainment/communication/navigation
Electronic Control Unit (ECU)

The ECU collects and processes signals from various on-board sensors. An ecu electronic
module contains microprocessors, memory units, analog to digital converters and output
interface units. Depending upon the parameters, a number of different maps can be stored in
the onboard memory. This allows the ecu to be tailored to the specific engine and vehicle
requirements, depending on the application. The operating software of the ecu can be adapted
for a wide variety of engines and vehicles without the necessity of hardware modification. The
ecu is usually located in the cab or in certain cases, in a suitable position in the engine bay
where additional environmental conditions might require cooling of the ecu as well as a
requirement for better dust , heat and vibrations insulation .

Electro-magnetic actuators are usually located on the fuel pump to transfer electrical signals into
mechanical action in this case fuel rack actuator and or fuel stop solenoid which means that
depending on requests from control unit full fuel or no fuel quantity.  Injectors  Boost-
pressure actuator  Intake-duct switchoff  Throttle-valve actuator  Exhaust-gas
recirculation actuator  Auxiliary heating  A/c compressor  Radiator fan  Electronic
shutoff valve  Rail-pressure control valve  Diagnosis lamp Operation The injection of fuel or
the quantity of injected fuel has a decisive influence on engine starting, idling, power and
emissions. The engine ecu is programmed ("mapped") with relevant data to where the fuel rack
position has an equivalent signal for the amount of fuel being injected. The driver requests the
torque or engine speed requirements via accelerator pedal potentiometer thereby sending a
signal to the engine ecu which then, depending on its mapping and collected from various
sensors, calculates in real time the quantity of injected fuel required, thus altering the fuel rack
to the required position. The driver can also input additional commands such as idle speed
increase to compensate e.g. For pto operation which can be either variably set or has a preset
speed which can be recalled. The road speed function can be used to evaluate vehicle speed
and possibly activate a speed limiter (heavy vehicles), or maintain or restore a set speed (cruise
control ). Further functions can include exhaust brake operation which, when activated, will
result in the fuel pump rack position being set to zero delivery or idle. The engine ecu can also
interface with various other vehicle systems e.g. Traction control and carry out self monitoring
duties and self diagnostic functions to keep the system working at an optimal level. To ensure
the safe operation in case of failure, the limp home mode functions are also integrated into the
system, e.g. Should the pump speed sensor fail the ecu can use an alternator speed signal
function for engine rpms counter Additional functions as a backup signal. data
Links to Videos:
1. WORKING OF CARBURETTOR: How carburattor works?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rDDJ9CA8jsY
2. How Carburettor Works ( 3D Animation) in Suzuki GS150R Motorcycle
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gkhd-eJk234
3. How Carburetor Works
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ICzBGDnA9OA&t=11s
4. Fuel Injection Systems in SI Engines
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qId3Th6_a4U
5. Electronic Fuel Injection System Working
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xG1w3l41lmQ&t=16s
6. What is an Electronic Unit Injector? 
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=21S8OYBpejA
7. How does Common Rail Direct Injection (CRDI) work?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0ZYtDkn0b9g
8. EN | Bosch Common-rail system with solenoid injectors
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AgJRIIMdIM0
9. Working of Common Rail Fuel Injection System
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JocJWQzwmpM
10. Distributor Injection System
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eOnx4u01Kdw
11. Capacitive Discharge Ignition System
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lLe8H2R6vgQ
12. Transistorized Ignition System
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wzeD1ccCArA
13. Diesel Variable Geometry Turbo Introduction
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CbdY1rymBJg
14. Waste Gate Turbocharger
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VUpmC1kHh7w
15. How the 3-way catalytic converter and lambda sensor work
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=38McHDqAL1k
16. Catalytic Converter Working Principle: 2 way and 3 way, Function of catalyst
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EQh00n1lkd8
17. PART 1 - INTRODUCTION OF EMISSION STANDARDS AND TACKLING BS6
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=deR7HYSqNWA
Assignments
1.A heat engine is a device that converts chemical energy in fuel into __________ energy
finally.
 potential
 kinetic
 internal
 electrical
2.An IC engine in which the fuel air mixture is introduced into the combustion chamber at
near atmospheric pressure is called a _______________ engine.
 supercharged
 turbocharged
 pressurized
 naturally aspirated
3.A __________ sleeve is thicker and in direct contact with the coolant.
 wet
 dry
 hot
 cold
4.A  ____________ pin connects the piston to the connecting rod.
 caster
 circlip
 gudgeon
 snap
5.Twice the crankshaft _____________ is equal to the distance travelled by the piston in
one stroke.
 offset
 length
 width
 thickness
6.The ___________ valve is used to remove the products of combustion from the cylinder.
 intake
 transfer
 exhaust
 intermediate
7.Let the crankshaft of a 4-stroke IC engine be rotating at 1500 rpm. Then, the time
duration (in ms) of one intake stroke is
 40
 10
 20
 5
8.Valve train noise can be reduced by using a ____________ valve.
 larger
 tappet
 spring loaded
 thicker
9.The main problem encountered with spring return valves at high speed is that of
 valve life
 valve failure
 valve robustness
 valve float
10.Let the crankshaft of a 4-stroke engine be rotating at 2500 rpm. Then, the
camshaft should rotate at
 2500 rpm
 1250 rpm
 5000 rpm
 625 rpm
11.The component that smoothens out the torque variations in the engine output is
the
 crankshaft
 camshaft
 flywheel
 piston
12.The position of the piston when it is nearest to the crankshaft is referred to as
the _____________ dead centre.
 bottom
 top
 near
 far
13.The nominal volume of the combustion chamber when the piston is at TDC is
called as  ____________ volume.
 displacement
 total
 cylinder
 clearance
14.Which one of the following statements is true about the suction stroke in a 4-
stroke IC engine?
 The exhaust valve remains closed.
 The inlet valve remains closed.
 The piston moves away from the BDC.
 The piston moves towards the TDC.
15.Which one of the following statements is true about the compression stroke in a
4-stroke IC engine?
 The exhaust valve remains open.
 The inlet valve remains open.
 The piston moves away from the BDC.
 The piston moves away from the TDC.
 Part A Q & A (with K level and CO)

S. Question and Answers K Perat

No leve ining
l Co
1. What is conventional ignition system ?
The conventional system gets its electrical ignition voltage K1 CO2
either from battery or dynamo, which will be boosted to a very
high voltage due to which spark is produced in the cylinder to
combust the mixture
2. Define common rail injection system.
A common rail which is maintaining high fuel pressure is K2 CO2
connected to individual fuel injectors of a multi cylinder
engine.
3. What is unit injection system?
It is an integrated direct fuel injection system for diesel K2 CO2
engines, combining the injector nozzle and the injection pump
in a single component
4. What is a rotary distributor?
The rotary distributor has a rotating element, which releases a K1 CO2
high intensity spark to the individual spark plugs according to
the engine firing order.

5. What is the function of a sparkplug?

The spark plug is a device to produce electric spark to ignite K1 CO2
the compressed air-fuel mixture inside the cylinder.
6. What is an Electronic ignition system?
The ignition system, in which the mechanical contact points K1 CO2
are replaced by electronic triggering and switching devices, is
known as electronic ignition system.

7. What are the functions of Turbochargers?

a. To produce more power from the same size engine K1 CO2
b. To provide the altitude compensation
c. To improve more complete combustion & hence less
emissions

66
S. Question and Answers K Perat
No leve ining
l Co
8. Why the engine emissions to be controlled?
Some of the engine emissions are carcinogenic. Moreover, the K1 CO2
engine emissions led to green house effect. For these reasons, the
engine emissions need to be controlled.
9. What are the advantages of petrol injection?
a. High power can be developed K2 CO2
b. It has quick starting characteristics
c. It has lowest specific fuel consumption
d. Less engine emissions than carburetted engines

10. What is supercharging?

The process of increasing the density of inducted charge/ air is K1 CO2
known as supercharging. It is performed for the following reasons.
a. To produce more power from the same size engine
b. To provide the altitude compensation
c. To improve more complete combustion & hence less emissions

11. What is meant by carburetion in I.C engine?

The method of preparing the air-fuel mixture in an IC engine is K1 CO2
known as carburetion. The device used for this purpose is known as
carburetor.
12. What are the advantages of electronic fuel injection system
over conventional injection? K2 CO2
a. Cold starting is easier
b. High fuel economy
c. Less engine emissions
d. Quick response to varying engine operating conditions
13. What are the functions of generator and starting motor?
The function of the generator is to produce electricity to charge the K1 CO2
battery. The starting motor is used to crank the engine during the
starting condition.
14. What is the function of an ignition system in I.C engine?
The function of an ignition system is to ignite the air-fuel mixture at K1 CO2
the end of the compression stroke.

67
S. Question and Answers K Perat
No leve ining
l Co

15. State the requirements of ignition system? And state

its types K1 CO2
a. It should consume minimum of power and produce high
intensity spark across spark plug electrodes
b. It should have a sufficient spark duration which is sufficient
to establish burning of air- fuel mixture under all operating
conditions
c. It should provide sufficient ignition energy over the entire
speed range of the engine
d. Good performance at high speed
e. Longer life of contact breaker points and sparkplug
f. Adjustment of spark with speed & load
Types:
 Battery ignition
 Magneto ignition
 Electronic ignition

16. What is the ignition advance?

When the speed of the engine increases, the ignition timing K1 CO2
also needs to be advanced for proper combustion. This
process is known as ignition advance.

17. What are the difference between battery coil ignition

and magneto ignition system? K1 CO2
No. Battery Ignition Magneto Ignition
1 Battery supplies current Magneto produces the required
in primary circuit current for
primary circuit
2 A good spark is available During starting the quality of
at low speed also spark is poor
due to slow speed
3 Occupies more space Very much compact

4 Recharging is a must in No such arrangement required

case battery
5 Mostly employed in car Used on motorcycles, scooters,
and bus for which etc
it is required to crank
the engine
6 Battery maintenance is No battery maintenance
required problems
68
S. Question and Answers K Perat
No leve ining
l Co
18. What is the function of carburetor?
The function of a carburetor is to prepare the air-fuel mixture K1 CO2
according to the engine operating conditions.

19. List the different methods of battery charging.

a. Constant currentcharging K1 CO2
b. Constant voltagecharging
c. High ratecharging
d. Slow ratecharging
20. In what respect does a Dynamo differ from an Alternator?
i). Dynamo produces Direct Current (DC), while Alternator produced K1 CO2
Alternating Current(AC)which can be converted to DC using
rectifiers
ii). Alternator is lighter in construction than dynamo for the
sameoutput

21. What is the purpose of Stator in the Torque Converter?

The stator resides in the center of the torque converter. Its job is to K1 CO2
redirect the fluid returning from the turbine before it hits the pump
again. This dramatically increases the efficiency of the torque
converter.
22. What are the various pollutants in I.C engine?
a. HC K1 CO2
b. CO
c. NOx
d. Particulates
e. SO2

23. What is a Catalyst?

Catalyst is a chemical substance which increases the rate of K1 CO2
chemical reaction. Examples are Platinum, Palladium and Rhodium.

24. Write down the firing order a 4 cylinder and 6 cylinder engine.
4 cylinder engine firing order: 1-4-3-2 K2 CO2
6 cylinder engine firing order: 1-5-3-6-2-4

69
 Unit –II Part B Qs (with K level and CO)

S.N Question and Answers K Perat

o level ining
Co

1. i) What are the factors which affect the process of K2 CO2

carburetion?
(ii)Explain the working principle of simple carburetor with
neat sketch.
2. Explain the working of electronically controlled gasoline K2 CO2

Injection system with neat sketch.

3. What are the different types of injection system used in petrol K2 CO2

engine? Explain in detail.

4. Discuss the construction and working of rotary distributor type K2 CO2

diesel injection system

5. What is CRDI? Explain in detail with relevant sketch. K2 CO2

6. (i) What do you understand by the terms MPFI and CRDI? K2 CO2
State it advantages and disadvantages over the
convention system.
(ii) Sketch any fuel injector and explain its working.
7. With suitable sketches explain mono point and multi point fuel K2 CO2

injection systems and bring out the comparative features.

8. Write short notes on the following: K2 CO2
CRDI system. MPFI system.

9. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of electronic K2 CO2

ignition system compared to the conventional electrical ignition

system
10. Explain electronic ignition system with neat diagram. K2 CO2

11. Explain the working principle of Capacitance Discharge K2 CO2

Ignition system (CDI).

70
S.N Question and Answers K Perat
o level ining
Co

12. List the various electronic ignition systems in use. Describe K2 CO2
any one of them clearly stating its advantages and
disadvantages.
13. What are WGT and VGT? Explain its working with neat K2 CO2

sketches.
14. Explain the construction and working of Transistorized Coil K2 CO2

Ignition (TCI) system with suitable diagram.

15. Explain a turbocharger and its types with a neat sketch. Also K2 CO2
write the advantage of turbocharger over supercharger

16. (i) Brief the modifications to be done in an engine to make it K2 CO2

suitable for supercharging?
(ii) Write short note on electronic fuel injection system.

17. (i) What do you know about emission norms? Discuss. K2 CO2
(ii) Explain about the working principle of three way catalytic
converter with a neat sketch.
18. Illustrate the followings. K2 CO2

i) Emission norms. I
ii) Operational features of electronics engine management
system with neat sketch.
19. Summarize various pollutants from an automobile and explain K2 CO2

any one method to reduce the after combustion emissions.

71
 Supportive online Certification courses

S.NO Link Academy

1 https://onlinecourses.nptel.ac.in/ NPTEL
noc20_de06/unit?unit=30&lesson=31

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4 https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/mechanical- MIT
engineering/2-61-internal-combustion-
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Real time Applications in day to day life and to Industry
1. Fleet Management:

The implementation of IoT in automotive sector has brought in a huge development

in the field of fleet management. Trucks nowadays are integrated with weight
measurement, location tracking, and several other sensors.

The volume of sensory data gathered from a large fleet of such trucks is stored into
a cloud application. This data is then processed through different analytics features
and conceptualized into a visual format. A fleet operator can easily go through this
information to monitor different parameters associated with its fleet. Some of the
benefits that an IoT infused fleet management system offer to a fleet manager are:
• Real-time location monitoring of the fleet
• Weight/Volume tracking of cargo that the fleet is carrying
• Trucks’ performance statistics like fuel and mileage
• Tracking traffic conditions on the road
• Route management
• Time and Driver management

2. Connected Cars:

The idea of connected cars is not new. In fact, according to an estimation by

Gartner, there will be more than 250 million connected cars in the world by the end
of the year 2020. These cars are connected over an IoT network called CV2X
(cellular vehicle to everything) that connects vehicles and smart transport systems
with each other.

Connected cars facilitate fast transmission of data and increase drivers’ response
time through enhanced vehicle communication. Based on the vehicle’s connection
with different objects, the CV2X is sub-divided into four categories:
Vehicle to vehicle (V2V): V2V connection allows vehicles in a proximate range to
share data with each other. The data mainly constitutes information related to
location, speed, and dynamics. V2V connection helps in preventing accidents and
allow emergency vehicles like ambulances and fire trucks to easily move through
traffic.

Vehicle to infrastructure (V2I): V2I connection refers to a network of vehicles

and road infrastructures. The infrastructure in V2I generally constitutes traffic lights,
lane markings, and toll booths. V2I generally facilitates smooth traffic flow and avoid
long queues at toll booths or petrol pumps.

Vehicle to pedestrians (V2P): Through the use of a mobile application, a

pedestrian can also connect with CV2X network. A pedestrian can use this
application to locate nearby taxis and monitor the estimated time of arrival for
transits. They can also connect with the pedestrian walking system and change
traffic signals to cross a road.

Vehicle to network (V2N): Intelligent Transport System (ITM) and weather

forecast department can also connect with the network to alert the drivers about
change in weather conditions or an accident on the road. Moreover, a vehicle can be
connected with smartphones. This way, the driver can use voice commands to
operate the music system and GPS of the car while driving.
Softwarization-thinking digitally first:

With more technology companies entering the automotive landscape, bringing in

advanced connected features, electrification, and autonomous driving, the traditional
automakers are fast getting their digital acts together. Today’s high-end cars are
some of the most digitally complex, requiring around 100 million lines of code.
Automakers will make some tough decisions to bring software development in-house
or partner with technology companies. Some will even start building their own
operating systems. More than ever, automakers will be thinking digitally first.
Contents beyond the Syllabus ( COE related Value
added courses)

Self Driving Systems

Autonomous driving is set to change the automobile industry’s face by eliminating

the need for a human behind the wheels. Audi already has a cruise control system
with a stop and function that implements this feature. The cruise control system
works by using 30 control sensors all over the vehicle to provide information about
the vehicle’s surroundings to the processor.

The cruise control system can detect the vehicle travelling ahead of your automobile
and automatically adjust the travelling speed from 0 to 155 miles per hour. The
system employs two radar sensors in the front of the vehicle that allows the control
system to manoeuvre the vehicles. You will also have the option to make changes to
the acceleration rates of the vehicle. 
Other automobile manufacturers such as BMW are using autonomous driving systems
to perform automatic parking of vehicles without the driver’s intervention. This
system uses sensors to detect the space available and calculates the exact way to
park the automobile. Google is also developing self-parking systems that utilize
remote driving technology with the help of lasers on top of the roof. 

You can even use a universal roof rack for carrying luggage on your vehicle without
compromising the autonomous driving and self-parking features. The lasers help
create a 3D map of the vehicle’s surroundings to guide the automatic navigating
procedure. 

These technologies can determine the parameters of your vehicle, such as the
number of passengers, weight in the vehicle, and more to facilitate precise driving.
Technology is already aiding driving without the constant feedback of a driver, and
fully autonomous driving is going to become a default feature in the upcoming
automobiles soon. 

Lowing Emissions And Pollution

Mass production and outsourcing of parts mean that automobiles are available at
lower rates and readily available due to more production than at any time in history.
With the rise in the per capita income of the world population and the decrease in the
cost of automobiles, there is a massive surge in demand for cars across the world.
The gases are a by-product of the combustion of fossil fuels and are harmful to all
living beings and the environment. 

With the use of electric vehicles, automobile owners can cut down on transportation
costs by one-third of conventional fuels. The automobile industry is innovating on
technology, such as hybrid vehicles and cars running on alternate fuels. Electric cars
are gaining immense popularity nowadays all over the world due to spiralling fuel
prices. According to a study, a significant increase will take place in the number of
electric charging platforms in the summer of 2020. With the human impact on climate
causing harmful effects on the environment, every industry is turning towards more
environmentally friendly technology. The burning of fossil fuels is a significant
contributor to degrading the environment, and the governments around the world are
implementing strict laws on emission norms. Making changes to your lifestyle and
how you use your vehicles can significantly lower emissions. 
Semiconductor Shortage-could chip away the party:

The automotive semiconductor market is expected to reach USD 48.78 Billion by

2022. The rising trend of vehicle electrification and the growing demand for
advanced safety, convenience, and comfort systems are the other factors driving the
growth of semiconductor content in automobiles. The three fastest-growing
applications are telematics and infotainment, power train, and safety. The strict
standards and regulations are generating more demand for semiconductor
components in safety and power train applications. This was further exacerbated by
unexpected supply-chain disruptions in 2020 & 2021. Indian OEMs and Tier 1 will
also get affected impacting growth projections and implementing some of the above
trends
 Assessment Schedule ( Proposed Date & Actual Date)
Unit test 1 :
First Internal assessment : 16-09-2022
Unit test II :
Second Internal assessment : 2-11-2022
Model Exam : 1-12-2022
 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books

TEXT BOOKS:

1. Jain K.K. and Asthana .R.B, “Automobile Engineering” Tata McGraw Hill
Publishers, New Delhi, 2002.

2. Kirpal Singh, “Automobile Engineering”, Vol 1 & 2, Seventh Edition, Standard

Publishers, New Delhi, 13th Edition 2014..

REFERENCES:

1. Ganesan V. “Internal Combustion Engines”, Third Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2012.

2. Heinz Heisler, “Advanced Engine Technology,” SAE International Publications

USA, 1998.

3. Joseph Heitner, “Automotive Mechanics,” Second Edition, East-West Press, 1999.

4. Martin W, Stockel and Martin T Stockle , “Automotive Mechanics Fundamentals,”

The Good heart - Will Cox Company Inc, USA ,1978. 5. Newton ,Steeds and Garet,
“Motor Vehicles”, Butterworth Publishers,1989.
 Mini Project suggestions
Belt / Shaft Driven Bike
 Engine Cut Section Fabrication
CVT Mechanism Alteration
Pollution Analyser Using O 2 Sensor
Electric Car
Turbocharged Two Wheeler
LPG kit design for two wheelers
Pedal Assisted Cycle/Rickshaw
Fuel Efficiency in All Wheel Drive (AWD) System
Side Stand Retrieving System For Two Wheelers
Wind Powered Car
Bi-Cycle Rider System simulation using ADAMS
 Thank you

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