SURFACE FLOW

(Flood and Flood Routing)

 DEFINITIONS
• A flood is an unusually high stage in a river –
normally the level at which the river overflows
its banks and inundates the adjoining area.
• The damages caused by floods in terms of
loss of life, property and economic loss due to
disruption of economic activity are very high.
• Flood peak values are required in the design
bridges, culvert waterways, spillways for dams,
and estimation of scour at a hydraulic
structure.
• At a given location in a stream, flood peaks
vary from year to year and their magnitude
constitutes a hydrologic series.
 Flood Magnitude Estimate
To estimate the magnitude of a flood peak the
following methods are adopted:
–Rational method,
–Empirical equations,
–Flood frequency studies, and
–Unit hydrograph technique.
 Flood Magnitude Estimate
• The use of particular method depends upon
– The desired objective,
– The available data, and
– The importance of the project
 Rational Method
The rational method is found to be suitable for
peak flow prediction in small size (< 50 km2)
catchments.
• It finds considerable application in urban
drainage designs and in the design of small
culverts and bridges.
• At the start of a rainfall event, the portions
nearest the outlet contribute runoff first.
• As rain continues, farther and farther portions
contribute runoff, until flow eventually arrives
from all points on the watershed,
“concentrating” at the outlet.
 Rational Method
• An isochrone is a line on the catchment joining
points having equal time of travel of surface
runoff from the point to the catchment outlet.
• For a rainfall of uniform intensity and very long
duration over a catchment the runoff increases
as more and more flow from remote areas of
the catchment reach the outlet.
Where
• i = rainfall intensity;
• A = catchment area;
• C = runoff coefficient = runoff/rainfall.
The runoff coefficient represents the integrated effect of the
catchment losses and hence depends upon
– The nature of the surface,
– Surface slope and
– rainfall intensity.
• The rational formula assumes a homogeneous catchment
surface.
• If the catchment is non-homogeneous but can be divided into
distinct sub areas each having a different C, then the runoff from
each sub area is calculated separately and merged in proper
time sequence.
 RATIONAL METHOD
• Empirical method for small watersheds (less then 2000
acres)

• For small ungaged watersheds

Imperial system
where:
Q=CIA Q = peak runoff rate, cfs
C = runoff coefficient, non-dimensional
I = rainfall intensity, in/hr
A = area, acres

Metric system
where:
Q = peak runoff rate, m3/s
Q = 0.278 C I A C = runoff coefficient, non-dimensional
I = rainfall intensity, mm/hr
A = area, km2
 Empirical Formulae
• The empirical formulae used for the estimation
of the flood peak are essentially regional
formulae based on statistical correlation of the
observed peak and important catchment
properties.
• To simplify the form of the equation, only a few
of the many parameters affecting the flood peak
are used
• Almost all formulae use the catchment area as
a parameter affecting the flood peak and most
of them neglect the flood frequency as a
parameter
 Flood-Peak-Area Relationships

• By far the simplest relationships are those

which relate the flood peak to the drinage
area. Qp = f(A)
• While there are a vast number of formulae
of this kind proposed for various parts of
the world, only a few popular formulae
used are given here.
 Unit Hydrograph Method and Design Flood
• The unit hydrograph technique can be used to
predict the peak flood hydrograph if the
rainfall producing the flood, infiltration
characteristics of the catchment and the
appropriate unit hydrograph are available.
• The hydrograph of extreme floods and stages
corresponding to flood peaks provide valuable
data for purpose of hydrologic design.
• For design purposes, extreme rainfall
situations are used to obtain the design storm,
viz the hyetograph of the rainfall excess
causing extreme floods
 Unit Hydrograph Method and Design Flood

• The known unit hydrograph of the catchment is

then operated upon the design storm to
generate the desired flood hydrograph.
• Design flood is the flood adopted for the
design of a structure
 Design of Hydraulic Structure
• In the design of a hydraulic structure it is not practical
from economic point of view to provide for the safety
of the structure at the maximum possible flood in the
catchment.
• The type, importance of the structure and economic
development of the surrounding area and associated
damages in case of failure dictate the design criteria
for choosing the flood magnitude of a certain return
period.
• Standard project flood (SPF) is the flood that would
result from a severe combination of meteorological
and hydrological factors that are reasonably
applicable to the region.
 Probable Maximum Flood (PMF)
• Probable maximum flood (PMF) is the
extreme flood that is physically possible in
a region as a result of severe most
combinations, including rare combinations
of meteorological and hydrological factors.
• The PMF is used in situations where the
failure of the structure would result in loss
of life and catastrophic damage and as
such complete security from potential
floods is sought.
Probable Maximum Flood (PMF)
• SPF is often used where the failure of a
structure would cause less severe damages.
• Typically the SPF is about 40 to 60% of the
PMF for the same catchment.
• To estimate the design flood for a project by
the use of a unit hydrograph, one needs the
design storm.
• This can be the storm producing PMF or SPF
as per the design case.
 FLOOD ROUTING
• The flood hydrograph is in fact a wave.
• The stage and discharge hydrographs
represent the passage of waves of stream
depth and discharge respectively.
• As this wave moves down, the shape of the
wave gets modified due to channel storage,
resistance, lateral addition or withdrawal of
flows etc.
• When a flood wave passes through a reservoir
its peak is attenuated and the time base is
enlarged due to effect of storage.
Flood routing is the technique of
determining the flood hydrograph
at a section of a river by utilizing
the data of flood flow at one or
more upstream sections.
 FLOOD ROUTING-Cont’d
• The reduction in the peak of the outflow
hydrograph due to storage effects is called
attenuation
• The peak of outflow occurs after the peak of the
inflow
• The time difference between the peaks of inflow
and outflow hydrographs is known as lag.
• Modification in the hydrograph is studied
through flood routing.
 APPLICATION OF FLOOD ROUTING

Flood routing is used in

 Flood forecasting,
 Flood protection,
 Reservoir design, and
 Design of spillway and other outlet
structures
Types and Methods of Food Routing
• Types of Routing
– Reservoir routing, and
– Channel routing.
• Routing methods are available grouped into:
– Hydrologic routing, and
– Hydraulic routing.
• Hydrologic routing methods employ essentially
the equation of continuity,
• Hydraulic methods use continuity equation
along with the equation of motion of unsteady
flow (St. Venant equations) hence better than
hydrologic methods
 Storage Routing
• As a flood hydrograph approaches and passes
through a reservoir or detention facility, the
characteristics of unsteady flow become
significant.
• Consider inflow and outflow rates and water
storage characteristics when routing a flood
hydrograph through the storage facility.
• Reservoir or detention pond storage routing
also applies when outflow depends only upon
the volume of flood storage
Storage Routing Techniques Procedures
• Determine peak discharges from watersheds
containing reservoir flood water detention
basins and other flow retardation structures
• Analyze pump station performance
• Specify overtopping flood magnitudes
• Evaluate traffic interruption due to roadway
overtopping and the associated economic
losses
 Hydrograph Storage Routing Method
Components
• Several analytical and graphical methods route flood
hydrographs through reservoirs or other detention facilities.
• All of the methods require reliable descriptions of the following
three items:
– An inflow runoff hydrograph for the subject flood
– The storage capacity versus water elevation within the facility
– The performance characteristics of outlet facilities associated with the
operation of the facility
• By definition, when inflow and outflow from a reservoir (or any
type of storage facility) are equal, a steady-state condition
exists.
• If the inflow exceeds the outflow, the additional discharge is
stored in the system. Conversely, when the outflow exceeds the
inflow, water is taken from storage
The basic reservoir routing equation
 Channel Routing
• Routing of flood hydrographs by means of channel
routing procedures is useful in instances where known
hydrographic data are at a point other than the point of
interest.
• This is also true where the channel profile or plan is
changed in such a way as to alter the natural velocity
or channel storage characteristics.
• Routing analysis estimates the effect of a channel
reach on an inflow hydrograph.
• Muskingum Method Equations, a lumped flow routing
technique approximates storage effects in the form of
a prism and wedge component in Channel Routing
Total Storage Equation