Technical Workshop on Gender Statistics

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 3-6 Nov 2014

Analysis and Communication

of Gender Statistics
Dr. Jose Ramon “Toots” G. Albert
Senior Research Fellow
Philippine Institute for Development Studies
Email: [email protected]; [email protected]
 Learning Objectives
After completing the module, the
participant should be familiar with:
• how analysis and presentation of gender statistics can
enhance the usefulness of the statistics;
• main types of analytic measures and analytic tools that
can add value to basic data; and
• tools and techniques, including use of SPSS, for
presenting statistics in ways that ensure the visibility of
meaningful differences and similarities between
women and men.

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 Topics
1. Analysis of Gender
Statistics
 Gender Analysis
 Analytical Measures : Proportions,
Rates, Ratios, Measures of Central
Tendency and Dispersion
2. Presentation of Gender
Statistics
 Line Graphs, Bar Charts, Dot
Charts, Pie Charts, Scatterplots,
Maps
 Tables
3. Introduction to SPSS

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 1.Analysis of Gender Statistics
Analysis is an integral part of statistical production
process. Analysis of gender statistics involves:
• Identifying gender issues to be informed by the
analysis.
• Obtaining statistics and other relevant data from
available sources.
– all variables of interest need to be disaggregated by sex
as a primary classification;
– many variables may also need to be cross-tabulated, e.g.
labour force participation by sex, by age group by area.

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 1.Analysis of Gender Statistics
Analysis of gender statistics involves:
• Analysing and interpreting the data, including
derivation of indicators and other analytic
measures.
• Reporting the findings, including presenting the
statistics in easy-to-use formats that are
appropriate to the statistical product in which
they will be disseminated.

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 1.1. Gender Analysis

• The purpose of the analysis determines the type

and level used.
• The type and level of analysis usually vary by the
type of statistical product to be used in reporting
results.
– Disseminating basic data collected in censuses and
surveys typically involves tables with minimum data
processing and analysis.
– More analytical reports or articles typically conduct
additional processing and analysis.

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 1.1. Gender Analysis
• For most types of analysis, indicators and other
analytic measures play an important role.
– Use the basic data to select and construct relevant
indicators and other analytic measures.
– Apply more complex analytic tools and techniques to
the basic data to better understand some issues.

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 1.2. Analytical Measures
• In analysing data from a gender perspective, use
measures of composition and distribution of
particular variables by sex.
• Such measures include:
–proportions and percentages;
–ratios and rates;
–medians and quantiles, means and standard
deviations.
• They provide basis for gender indicators used to
monitor progress towards gender equality.

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 1.2.1. Proportions and Percentages

Proportions and percentages can be

calculated as relative measures of:
(a) Distributions of each sex across categories of a
characteristic--e.g.,
• Proportion or percentage of women who are
employed--compared to women unemployed;
• Labour force participation rate of women of the total
female population;
• Literacy rate of women—literate versus illiterate
women.

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 1.2.1. Proportions and Percentages

(b) Sex distributions within the categories of a

characteristic-e.g.,
• Proportion or percentage of the employed who are
women or men;
• Proportion or percentage of parliament members
who are women or men;
• Share of women (or men) among older persons living
alone.

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 (a) Distribution of each sex across
the categories of a characteristic

Type of Occupation for the Employed in Ethiopia, DHS 2005

% Female % Male
Prof/Tech/Manag 3.8 2.6
Clerical, Sales and services 32.9 7.0
Agriculture 52.2 84.6
Skilled Manual 6.1 3.3
Unskilled Manual 5.0 2.5
TOTAL 100.0 100.0

Distribution of employed males and females by occupational group

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 (a) Distribution of each sex across
the categories of a characteristic

Source: DHS 2011,

Ethiopia

Women Men

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 (b) Sex distribution within
categories of a characteristic

Age Structure in Ethiopia, 2014 (estimate)

Male Female Both
Sexes
0-14 years 50.1% 49.9% 100.0%
15-24 years 49.6% 50.4% 100.0%
25-54 years 49.7% 50.3% 100.0%
55-64 years 48.8% 51.2% 100.0%
65 and over 45.1% 54.9% 100.0%
Total 49.7% 50.3% 100.0%

Male and female distribution within age group categories

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 1.2.2. Rates

• Rates of incidence can be used to study the

dynamics of change over time.
– They are a special type of ratio obtained by dividing
number of events during a period by number of
population exposed to the events during the period
• Fertility rates , expected number of children a woman
o reproductive age (15-49 years old) would have
during her life time if she experiences the given age at
specific rate, -- in Ethiopia, latest estimate of total
fertility rate is 4.8 (2011 DHS), a slight decline from
5.5 in 2000.

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 1.2.2. Rates

• Mortality rates, (number deaths per a number of the

population) such as
– Infant mortality rates (under 1 year) per 1000 live
births – in Ethiopia, 59 (2011 DHS).
– World Bank estimate (2013): 44.4
• Females: 38.8
• Males: 49.7 ,
– Under five mortality rate per 1000 births – in
Ethiopia, 88 (2011, DHS)
– World Bank estimate (2013): 64.4
• Females: 58.5
• Males: 70.1

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 1.2.2. Rates

• By convention, some percentage measures are also called

rates–for example:
– Literacy rate (percentage of population that is literate) –
in Ethiopia,
• Literacy rate among population 15 and older in
2011:
• Among women 15 and older: 38% (DHS2011)
• Among men 15 and order: 57% (DHS2011)

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 1.2.3. Ratios

• Particular compositional aspects of a population can

be made explicit by the use of ratios, where a single
number expresses the relative size of two numbers–
for example:
– Sex ratio (number of males per 100 females): 101.3 for
Ethiopia (ICPS 2012)
– Sex ratio at birth (number of male live births per 100
female live births): 103 for Ethiopia (2013 estimate);
– Maternal mortality ratio: 680 (National Estimate, 2011);
420 (WB, 2011 modeled)

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 1.2.3. Ratios

• For some sex ratios, standardisation of variables

used may be necessary to adequately reflect
gender differences– for example:
– The gender parity index for primary gross enrolment,
calculated as the ratio of the gross enrolment rate for
girls to the enrolment rate for boys,
Girls’ gross primary enrolment rate = girls enrolled as a proportion of school-age girls  80.45
Boys’ gross primary enrolment rate = boys enrolled as a proportion of school-age boys 93.43

– For Ethiopia, the gender parity index for gross primary

enrolment: 0.86 (2006)

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 1.2.4. Measures of Central Tendency

• Medians and quantiles

– Often used in gender statistics to show distribution of
income or wealth across the population;
– They can be useful in studying gender issues
associated with poverty or in analysing the economic
resources of different household types (such as single
mother households).
• Means (averages) :
– Average (mean) time use on unpaid work
– Average (mean) size of land owned
– Mean age at first marriage
– Mean age of mother at first child
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 1.2.5. Measures of Dispersion

• Standard deviations, coefficient of variation, etc.

– These measures are important for measuring the
degree of association between variables and making
population inferences based on sample data.
– Although not often presented in gender statistics

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 1.3. Understanding gender
differences using analytic measures
It often may be necessary to disaggregate simple
summary measures or combine them with other
data to adequately inform gender issues. This is
illustrated in the following example which explores
poverty among female or male headed households
in Rwanda.

Data from the 2012 EICV3 revealed little difference in poverty incidence
among female-headed and male-headed households:
• 47% of female-headed households (which comprise 28% of all
households), were poor compared to
• 44% of male-headed households (which comprise 66% of all
households).
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 1.3. Understanding gender
differences using analytic measures

However, the data revealed a higher poverty rate for de facto

female-headed households (51% compared to 47% for de jure
female-headed and 44% for male-headed households). In these
households, which are only 6% of all households, male heads were
absent for more than 3 months in the previous 12 months mainly
because of detention or compulsory service (41%) or for work (28%).
For households in extreme poverty, the difference by household
head is much larger: 34% of de facto female-headed households are
extremely poor, compared to 26% of de jure female-headed and only
23% of male-headed households. 

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 1.3. Understanding gender
differences using analytic measures
De facto female-headed households heads tend to be more similar
to male than to other female heads in terms of marriage, age,
education and literacy, but they are larger (6 members on average
compared to 5 for male-headed and 4 for de jure female-headed
households) and more likely to have younger children or
grandchildren at home, and more likely to work as wage workers
(32%) than de jure female-household heads (17%).
De jure female-headed households tend to be headed by older,
widowed, less educated and literate women (almost 70% are 45 or
older), who are much more likely to be small-scale farmers. These
characteristics explains in part why they are different from male and
de facto female-headed households.
Source: NISR. EICV3 Thematic Report on Gender, 2013.

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 1.3.1. Use and value of standardisation

In some situations it can be useful to standardise a

measure to better understand gender differences or
to avoid it being misleading (or biased).

Examples where standardisation may be important :

• Risk of renewed divorce of men or women in
second or third marriages.
 Standardisation by order of marriage can take account
of the fact that more men than women remarry after a
first divorce or widowhood.

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 1.3.1. Use and value of standardisation

Examples where standardisation may be important :

• Literacy rates of women and men.
 Age standardisation can take account of the fact that
literacy rates are lower at higher ages, were women
predominate.

• Incidence of disability in women and men.

 Age standardisation can take account of the fact that
there are more women than men in the population
and that excess of women over men is concentrated in
the oldest ages where disabilities are most common.

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 A country example showing effect of age standardisation

Un-standardised and Age Standardised

Prevalence of Selected Types of Disabilities in
Mexico, based on 2010 Population Census
Percentage Prevalence Standardized
Type of disability
Female Male Female Male Female
Walking or moving 53.3 2.10 2.29 2.19 2.20
Seeing 52.2 1.14 1.19 1.18 1.15
Hearing 45.2 0.50 0.40 0.53 0.38
Speaking or communicating 43.0 0.42 0.30 0.42 0.30
Personal care 52.6 0.20 0.21 0.21 0.20
Paying attention or learning 45.9 0.21 0.17 0.21 0.17
Mental disabilities 43.8 0.47 0.35 0.47 0.34
Total 50.1 4.17 4.00 4.29 3.87

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 1.3.2. Value of multivariate analysis

Multivariate analysis can

• assist in disentangling variability and
understanding interrelationships within a
population group
• provide a more comprehensive view of different
relationships, making it easier to identify
situations where, for example, the relationship
between two variables can be accounted for by
their common dependence on a third factor.

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 1.3.2. Value of multivariate analysis

Examples of use in context of gender statistics are:

• Understanding relationship between women’s educational
attainment and economic level in rural and urban areas
and at varying ages;
• Investigating whether relationship between two highly
correlated characteristics, such as lower education and
early marriage, is caused by another factor, ethnicity;
• Understanding whether marital status of a woman has a
direct effect on her labour force participation after
controlling for other intervening factors.
• Understanding various factors that affect age of marriage;

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 1.3.2. Value of multivariate analysis

• Two types of multivariate analyses which

have proved useful in social studies are
– multiple linear regression and
– logistic regression.
Note: Multiple classification analysis (MCA) is
another useful technique, closely related to
linear regression.

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 A country example: A study using multivariate analysis in Ethiopia

Policy Reform toward Gender Equality in Ethiopia

A Multivariate Analysis.
This study examines data from the Ethiopian Rural Household Survey
(ERHS) to show how two seemingly unrelated reforms—community-
based land registration, under-taken since 2003, and changes in the
Family Code implemented in 2000—may have created conditions for
mutually reinforcing gender-sensitive reforms.

The study confirms previous studies’ findings of gender gaps in

awareness and information about the land registration process. Male-
headed households are, on average, more likely to have heard about
the process, to have attended meetings (and a greater number of
meetings), and to have received some written material with
information about the process. Having female members in the

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 A country example: A study using multivariate analysis in Ethiopia

Land Administration Committee (LAC) has a positive impact on

attendance at meetings relating to land registration. awareness about
the land registration process is positively correlated with the shift in
perceptions toward equal division of land and livestock upon divorce.
The presence of female members in the LAC also has a positive effect
on the shift in perceptions toward a more equal division of assets
upon divorce. Taken together, these findings suggest that the land
registration process and the reform of the Family Code may have
mutually reinforcing effects on women’s rights and welfare. While this
example is obviously rooted in the Ethiopian context, it raises the
possibility that similar reform efforts may be complementary in other
countries as well.

Source: Neha Kumar and Agnes R. Quisumbing IFPRI.

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 1.3.3. Tips for analysing gender statistics

 Assess data quality to avoid

misinterpretation of results.
 Use appropriate analytic measures and
techniques to construct indicators that
reflect the gender issues to be studied.
 Consider the value of using multivariate
analysis to assist in understanding gender
inequality in its many dimensions.

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 1.3.3. Tips for analysing gender statistics

 Interpret the results of analysis with careful

consideration of the different factors that
may be involved (such as distinguishing the
between the impact of socio-economic and
biological factors on health outcomes).
 Take care when combining data from
different sources and use appropriate
techniques.

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 1.3.4. Concerns when integrating data
from different sources
• When different sources need to be combined to
calculate a particular analytic measure (e.g., a rate),
check the sources for consistency and comparability.
 Comparability issues can arise because of:
̶ differences in concepts, definitions, coverage or
time period;
̶ errors or variations in classification or data
processing procedures; or
̶ variations in concepts or practices in different years
within the same source.

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 1.3.4. Concerns when integrating data
from different sources
• In most cases comparability checks can be made
by reviewing each source’s documentation.
 Consider consulting also the specialists who supply or
use the data from that source.
• Be aware of the different implications, for gender
analysis, of data produced at different levels of
statistical unit.
 Statistics on poverty may be produced at household
level and/or individual person level but the concepts
used are not the same and thus not comparable

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 1.3.4. Concerns when integrating data
from different sources
• Using sex of ‘head of household’ (or household
headship) to analyse gender differences can be
problematic.
 ‘Head of household’ can refer to many different
concepts; it does not capture intra-household gender
inequalities; and it can reinforce gender stereotypes.
 There is no uniformity in country practices concerning
the concept or its use.

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 1.3.4. Concerns when integrating data
from different sources
• Comparing households with different
characteristics can provide useful insights into
gender issues.
 It can be useful to disaggregate households by
– size and composition (sex and age of each member),
– type (one person, couples with/without children,
single mother/father with or without children, etc.)
and
– other characteristics

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 EXERCISE 1
1. You are asked to prepare an article analysing a topical
gender issue—on health, education, employment or
violence--based on results of the recent Population
Census.
a) How would you go about the task?
b)What analytic measures and tools would you expect to
use?
2. Does the analysis of gender statistics need to be
improved in any of the fields (topic areas) with which you
are familiar? What are the specific field(s)? What needs
to be done and why?

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 2. Presentation of Gender Statistics

Women
Not paid
In-kind only
18.8% 12.0%
Cash and in-
16.9% kind
Cash only
52.2%

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 2. Presentation of Gender Statistics
• How statistics are presented will influence
understanding and use of data for policy making
• Gender data presentation seeks to:
– Highlight key gender issues
– Facilitate comparisons between women and men
– Convey main messages resulting from data analysis
– Reach a wide audience
– Encourage further analysis & stimulate data demand
• Tables, graphs and charts are key forms of
presentation.
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 2.1. Graphs and Charts

• These are powerful ways to present data:

– Summarize trends, patterns and relationships
between variables;
– Illustrate and amplify the main messages of a
publication, and inspire the reader to continue
reading;
– Give a quick and easy understanding of the
differences between women and men.

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 2.1. Graphs and Charts

• A graph or chart should:

– Be simple, not too cluttered
– Show data without changing the data’s message
– Clearly show any trend or differences in the
data
– Be accurate in a visual sense—for example
– If one value is double another, it should appear to
be double in the graph or chart.

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 2.1. Graphs and Charts

• There are many types of graphs and charts. It is

important to select the right type for data being
analysed.

• The selection may also be influenced by the

message to be conveyed and the method of
dissemination (e.g. printed or electronic).

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 2.1. Graphs and Charts

• Some of the main types of graphs and charts used

in presenting gender statistics are:
– Line charts
– Bar charts: vertical, stacked and horizontal
– Age pyramids
– Dot charts
– Pie charts
– Scatter plots
– Maps

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 2.1.1. Line charts

•Line charts can give a clear picture of trends

over time—examples:
 Trends in sex ratios;
 Literacy rates over time;
 Labour force participation rates by age group
over time.
• It is important to use a consistent scale on
each axis, i.e, the distance between each
number should be the same; otherwise the
line’s shape can give incorrect impressions
about the information.
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 2.1.1. Line charts

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 2.1.1. Line charts

Line charts also can

give a clear picture of
differences across
age groups.

These two chart

show that in Ethiopia
:
• Gross enrolment
rates were lower
for girls than for
boys, although the
gap appears
narrowing in recent
years.
• There is a gender Source: genderstats.org
gap in favor of men
for labour force
participation.

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 2.1.2. Bar charts

• Both vertical and horizontal bar charts are

common for presenting gender statistics.
• A key feature is that the greater the value,
the greater the length of the bar.
• Examples of use:
total fertility rate by region;
antenatal care by urban/rural area;
proportion of women having third and
higher order birth by education level.

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 2.1.2. Bar charts

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 2.1.2. Bar charts
Primary completion rate, female,
male (% of relevant age group):
Grouped (or
clustered) bar
charts can
present a
particular
characteristic
for women and
men at the
same time,
facilitating
comparisons
between them.
Source: Based on 2010 Population Prospect

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 2.1.2. Bar charts
Ratio of female to male labor force
participation (in %)

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 2.1.2. Bar charts
School-Attendance Rate in 2008 among Primary and
AdjustedSecondary Age Children
Net Attendance Rate in Attendance
Adjusted Net the Philippines
Rate
• Stacked bar charts (Primary Aged Children) (Secondary Aged Children)
illustrate data sets

100

100
containing two or
more categories

80
80
• Most effective for
categories that add

60
60

up to 100 per cent.

40
40

• Common problems:
• Bars with more

20
20

than three
segments are

0
difficult to compare 12 13 14 15 12 13 14 15
0

from one bar to 6 7 8 9 10 11 6 7 8 9 10 11 Male Female

Male Female
another; Primary Secondary
Pre-Primary Primary Others
• one or more
categories may be
too short to be
visible on the scale. Source: APIS 2008, Philippine Statistics Authority

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 2.1.2. Bar charts
Rwanda: Poverty levels, by sex of household head, EICV3
• Stacked bar charts
are also used to
present the 100%
distribution of a 90%
22.50% 26.00%
34.30%
variable within
the female and 80%
male population 70% 21.10%
21.00%
16.50%
60%
• Examples Extremely poor

• the distribution 50% Poor

Non poor
of female and 40%
male deaths by 30%
56.30% 53.00% 49.20%
cause of death;
• the distribution 20%
of female and 10%
male school
attendance. 0%
Male headed Female headed De facto female
headed

Source: NISR. 2013. EICV Thematic Report Gender

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 2.1.2. Bar charts
Number of 5 to 15 year old Out of School Children (in
thousands) in the Philippines
Horizontal bar
charts are often Region I - Ilocos 71.5 41.8
preferred when Region II - Cagayan Valley 63.6 34.4

• many categories Region III - Central Luzon 129.6 82.9

need to be Region V- Bicol 137.3 90.3

Region VI - Western Visayas
presented (e.g. Region VII - Central Visayas
133.1
130.1 92.0
100.0

regions of a Region VIII - Eastern Visayas 117.2 71.3

country), or Region IX - Zamboanga Peninsula 104.2 66.6

• where categories Region X - Northern Mindanao 91.5 67.2

have long labels. Region XI - Davao

Region XII - SOCCSKSARGEN
98.3
105.5
68.2
57.5
National Capital Region 117.0 94.0

May be preferred Cordillera Administrative Region 23.5 15.8

for showing some Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao

Region XIII - Caraga
139.2 125.6

type of time use

53.5 36.4
Region IVA - CALABARZON 140.2 114.5
data, because the Region IVB - MIMAROPA 70.0 52.6
left-to-right motion
on the x-axis 0 50 100 150 200 250
generally implies the Number of 5 to 15 yr old OOSC (in thousands)
passage of time
Male Female

Source: 2008 APIS, Philippine Statistics Authority

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 2.1.3. Age pyramids

• Age pyramids are

useful for
describing the age
structure of a
population and its
changes over time.

• Pyramids can use

percentages
instead of
absolute numbers
to highlight the
age groups where
women or men
are over-
represented.

Source: NISR. 2013. EICV3 Thematic Report Gender

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 2.1.4. Dot charts

• Preferred to bar charts when presenting

many categories or data points, because
bars can become too thin and difficult to
interpret.
• Can convey a lot of information in a simple
way without clutter.
• May be vertical or horizontal.

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 2.1.4. Dot Charts
Primary school net attendance rate for girls and boys by wealth quintile and
urban/rural areas Yemen, 2006
Per cent By w ealth quintile By residence
100
Boys
90
Girls
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Poorest Q2 Q3 Q4 Richest Rural Urban
20% 20%

Source: UNSD presentation “From raw data to easily understood gender statistics,” at Workshop on Integrating a
Gender Perspective into National Statistics, Kampala, Uganda 4 - 7 December 2012. Data from Yemen Ministry of
Health and Population, and UNICEF, 2008.

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 2.1.5. Pie charts

• Used for simple comparisons of a small

number of categories that make up a total.
• Can illustrate the percentage distributions
of qualitative variables and as an
alternative to bar charts.
• Using more than five categories will
generally make a pie chart difficult to read.

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 2.1.5. Pie Charts
Rwanda: % of type of earnings for currently married women
and men, 15-49, 2010
Women Men

12.0% 14.7%
18.8% Not paid
Not paid
In-kind only 36.2% 4.3% In-kind only
16.9% Cash and in-kind Cash and in-kind
Cash only
Cash only

44.8%
52.2%

Source: NISR & Measure DHS. 2012. Rwanda Demographic and Health Survey 2010

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 2.1.6. Scatter plots

• Often used to show the relationship

between two variables.
• Useful when many data points need to be
displayed, such as a large number of
regions, sub-regions or countries.
• Useful for identifying outliers in the data.

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 2.1.6. Scatter plots
School attendance rates for 6-17 years old by sex and state, India, 2005-06
Per cent girls
100
Higher school
attendance rates f or
girls than f or boys
90

80

S ikkim

70 G u ja ra t Ra ja s th a n

Aru n a c h a l Low er school

P ra d e s h
attendance rates f or
girls than f or boys
60
60 70 80 90 100
Per cent boys
Source: UNSD presentation “From raw data to easily understood gender statistics,” at Workshop on Integrating a Gender Perspective into
National Statistics, Kampala, Uganda 4 - 7 December 2012. Data from India Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India, 2007

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 2.1.6. Scatter plots
Life expectancy at birth
14

12
Women live longer Unhealthy life
10 than men style for men
Female-Male difference in LE

Higher mortality level; What is this?

-2
HIV/AIDS; maternal
mortality
-4
40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85
Life expectancy at birth

Source: Based on 2010 Population Prospect

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 2.1.7. Maps

• Maps are used to show spatial patterns and

geographic distributions for a particular
variable.
• They can increase the visibility of regional
clusters within a country and highlight
regional pockets that deviate substantially
from the norm.

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 2.1.7. Maps

• Ratio of female to male primary enrollment (per 1,000)

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 2.1.7. Maps

The chart shows

what proportion of
the households in
each province has
access to safe
drinking water.
While the data are
not disaggregated
by sex, they are
gender –relevant.
Why?

Source: NISR. 2012. EICV3 Main Indicators Report

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 2.1.8. Interactive Graphs & Charts

• A range of data visualization tools can be

employed to enhance on-line dissemination
of graphs and charts.
• These tools can animate presentations,
provide other interactive features, and
display three or four dimensions of data
simultaneously.

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 2.1.8. Interactive Graphs & Charts

– A moving image can show transitions in a variable

over time—changing the shape of an age
pyramid;
– Actual values and other details underlying a
particular point in a graph or chart can be
displayed instantly on request--by hovering over
the point;

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 2.1.8. Interactive Graphs & Charts

– Bubble charts (a variation of scatter plot/bar chart)

– to visualize three or four dimensions of data and also

– be animated to show changes over time.
Motion Chart of
Good Governance
Index (GGI) and
Gross Regional
Domestic Product
(GRDP) per Cap in
the Philippines

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 2.1.8. Interactive Graphs & Charts
Use of Early Warning Weather Systems in PH with
Project Noah : Predictions of Typhoon Haiyan
Path 3 Days Prior to Actual Landfall

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 2.2.1. Tables

• Tables are a form of presentation of data.

• Types of tables:
1. Large comprehensive tables, often placed in a separate
part of a publication (e.g., in an annex).
2. Text tables, which are smaller and part of the main
text of a publication. They often support a point made
in the text.

• Always preferable to presenting many numbers in

the text itself, as they allow more concise
explanations.
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 2.2. Tables

• Selection of data to present should focus on most

striking differences or similarities between women
and men.
• Some data may be more easily conveyed in a table
than in a graph--For example,
– when data do not vary much across categories of a
characteristic, or
– when data vary too much.

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 2.2.1. Text Tables with One Column/Row
Rwanda: Fertility by province, 2010 DHS

Total fertility rate*

• Can be used to (average # of children per woman)
present data Province
with not much City of Kigali 3.5 
variation
between North 4.1
categories, South 4.6

• Often listed in East 4.9

ascending or West 5.0
descending
order. Total (average) 4.6
*Total fertility rate for the 3 years (1-36 months) preceding the survey

Source: NISR & Measure DHS. 2012. RDHS 2010.

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 2.2.2. Text tables w/ two or more columns
Used to present data for females and males side by side so differences are clearly visible.

Source: NISR. 2013. EICV3 Thematic Report Gender.

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 2.2.2. Text tables w/ two or more columns

• Can be used as a form of presentation when the focus of analysis is a breakdown variable

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 2.3. Some tips for user-friendly
presentation of gender statistics
1. Focus on a limited number of messages for each
table, graph or chart.
 The messages should generally relate to a specific
gender issue.
2. Adopt good design practices; for example:
 Ensure charts have clear, simple headings; labels are
clear and accurate; axes are clear and divided
consistently; a key is provided; data sources are
acknowledged.

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 2.3. Some tips for user-friendly
presentation of gender statistics
3. Facilitate comparisons between women and
men; for example:
 Present data for women and men side by side;
 Ensure consistency in the way data for women and
men are presented (e.g., use the same color for
women and men in all charts in a presentation).
4. Consider the audience; for example:
 Rounded numbers may communicate a message more
easily to the general public.

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 2.3. Some tips for user-friendly
presentation of gender statistics
5. Ensure simplicity of the visual layout; for
example:
 Labels for values presented inside a graph or chart can
be distracting and often may be redundant;
 Including a third dimension on a two-dimensional
graph/chart can be misleading.

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 Exercise 2
Does the presentation of gender statistics need to be
improved in any of the fields (topic areas) with which you
are familiar? What are the specific field(s)? How would you
improve the presentation and why?

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 3. Introduction to SPSS
Three Main Types of Socio-Economic Data
• Cross Section Data (collected during one period,
e.g., CSA household surveys)
• Time Series Data (historical data observed at
different frequencies, such as annual, quarterly,
monthly or daily data)
• Panel Data (cross section data collected at
various points in time, with the data concerning
the same panel of subjects or objects in every
period).
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 3. Introduction to SPSS
• There are a number of statistical software
that provide all sorts of analytical and data
management capabilities.
– R (www.r-project.org)
– SAS (www.sas.com)
– SPSS (www.spss.com)
– Stata (www.stata.com)
For the training, we shall use SPSS (release
17) to learn gender statistics presentation

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 3. Introduction to SPSS
What is SPSS?
• Originally it is an acronym of Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences, but now it
stands for Statistical Product and Service
Solutions
• One of the most popular statistical
packages which can perform highly
complex data manipulation and analysis
with simple instructions
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 3.1. Preliminaries

Starting Up
1. Click
Start ► Programs ► SPSS Inc ► Statistics 17.0
2. Or, from Windows Explorer, go to folder
c:\program files\SPSSInc\Statistics 17
and double click on icon of
statistic.exe
3. Or, open a SPSS dataset within
Windows Explorer

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 3.2. Getting Started

Two windows
Data editor window Output viewer window

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 3.2. Getting Started
Data View Variables

Toolbar

Cases

Data View

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 3.2. Getting Started
Variable View
Variable Characteristics

Variables

Variable View

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 3.3. Entering Data

Name and type of variables

Set the characteristics
of your variables

• Type the name of the

variable
• Choose the type of variable
– Automatically set on
numeric, enter numbers
only
– String allows you to enter
characters
• Specify the width and
decimals

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 3.3. Entering Data

Variable label and value label

 Give your variables a descriptive label

• Insert value labels

– 1.00 = Male
– 2.00 = Female
• Value labels will appear in output window

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 3.3. Entering Data

Missing Values

• Specify any missing values

– Describe under value labels
– 99 = Respondent refused to answer
– 999 = Question did not apply
• Important to flag for special treatment or excluded
from calculations

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 3.3. Entering Data

Variable Measurement

• 3 kinds of measurement
– Nominal and Ordinal: Data can be string
or numeric, and are treated as categorical
– Scale: Data must be numeric

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 3.3. Entering Data

Enter your data in Data View

• Click the value labels button
to change between the
Notice the
number and the label
variable names
are at the top

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 3.4. Descriptive Statistics

• The sample dataset we will use etbr61fl.sav

File ► open ► data

• There are seven SPSS data files with

extension name .sav in the folder
c:/gender/dhs/etbr61fl.sav
• We are using the birth recode file callled
etbr61fl.sav
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 3.4.1. Frequencies
• You want to know the number of people/cases that
gave the same response
 Example:
How many males and
females?
Analyze ►
Descriptive Statistics ►

Frequencies

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 3.4.1. Frequencies

• A pop-up
window will
show variables
on the left
column
• Choose the
variable you
want (sex of
child b4)
• Click the arrow
to put it in the
Variables box
• Click OK

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 3.4.1. Frequencies
• The frequency table shows up in the Output Viewer

Frequency Table

 Frequency: 23502 children of

sample households are male
 Percent: Includes the missing
response, 51.6% are male
 Valid Percent: Does not include
the missing response, 51.6% are
male

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 3.4.2. A Note on the Output Viewer

The output viewer saves and

prints as a separate document
from the data editor.

Outline pane: Helps manage

the output contents. Click on
any icon to go there in your
viewer.

Double click titles or tables to

edit them.
You can also copy and cut
any item.

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 3.4.3. Descriptives

• You want to know the mean, standard deviation, minimum,

maximum, etc…
• Variables should be scale and can be meaningfully measured
Analyze ► Descriptive Statistics ► Descriptives

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 3.4.3. Descriptives
• Choose “education in single years (v133)”
• Click the arrow to bring it to the variables box
• Click “Options” to choose the calculations you want

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 3.4.4. Descriptives Table in Output Viewer

• Descriptive table
shows up in the
Output Viewer

• Shows you the Min.,

Max., Mean years of
schooling of all cases

• The average years of

schooling of all
children is 1.2 years
(need to eventually
consider years of
schooling of those 6
years and above)
Number of cases Standard deviation

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 3.4.5. Explore
• You want to know the mean, minimum, standard deviation, etc. years of
schooling by sex of child
Analyze ► Descriptive Statistics ► Explore
• Analyze > Descriptive Statistics > Explore
• Enter “education in single years (v133)” into Dependent List
• Enter “sex of child b4” into Factor List

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 3.4.6. Explore Table in Output Viewer

Gives you the

statistics by
sex of child

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 3.4.7. Crosstabs
• You want to compare the number or percentage of
respondents within subcategories
Analyze ► Descriptive Statistics ► Crosstabs
 Choose the variables you
want to appear in the rows
and columns

 Under “Cells” you can

choose to see the
percentages

 We will look at the sex of

children by age

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 3.4.7. Crosstabs

• Click “Statistics”
• Choose the calculations you want, e.g. Chi-square

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 3.4.8. Crosstabs in Output Viewer

Gives breakdown of distribution by sex and

(five year) age group

Gives you statistics previously chosen

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 3.5.1. Sorting Data

• Sort Cases
Data ► Sort Cases
– Cases are sorted by the
variable, like region
V024
– Choose the variable you
want to sort by
– Click ascending or
descending

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 3.5.1. Sorting Data

• Sort Variables
– Same process
Data ► Sort Variable
– Choose by which variable
characteristic you want to
sort

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 3.5.2. Selecting Cases

• You want to select out certain

cases to look at them more
closely
– For example, you want to only
analyze children with ages greater
than or equal to 6
– Go to: Data > Select cases
– Click: If condition is satisfied
– Click: If…

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 3.5.2. Selecting Cases

• In the popup window

– Find the variable
“current age of
child b8”
– Click arrow
– b8>= 6

• Notice the symbols

+ , -, *, /,
< , > , <= , >= ,
& (and) , | (or), ~ (not)
etc…

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 3.5.2. Selecting Cases

• In Data View
– Cases with current age of child
less than 6 are filtered out

 There is a new variable that shows the filter

 In the future, use this variable as a shortcut

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 3.5.3. Re-do Crosstabs
• (this time with the selected cases)
Analyze ► Descriptive Statistics ► Crosstabs
 New Output

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 3.5.4. Turning off Filter for Cases

• Turn off the filter

Data ► Select cases
– Click “All cases”
– Notice the “If” button is
turned off

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 3.6.1. Chart Builder

• Toolbar
Graphs ► Chart
builder

1. Choose the kind of

graph you want
2. Click & drag the graph
into the above window

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 3.6.1. Chart Builder

3. Choose the
variable
4. Click & drag it
into the x- 5. Remember to
axis and y- click “Apply”
axis

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 3.6.2. Some Graphs

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 3.7. Complex samples
• SPSS Complex Samples is a module that
accounts for complex (stratified/clustered)
sampling designs, calculating standard
errors with survey-weighted data.
• Survey designs that call for complex survey
sampling require different methods to
calculate standard errors.
• Procedures we have used to this point
assume a simple random sample.

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 3.7. Complex samples
• Weighted standard errors produced in
complex samples procedures are very
different from those in basic SPSS
procedures.
• The Complex Samples module includes
procedures for
– Frequencies
– Means
– Crosstabs
– Regressions
– GLM (general linear model)
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 3.7. Complex samples
• Variation among methods for calculating
standard errors
– Different programs that produce weighted
standard errors for complex samples will
typically generate slightly different estimates.
• Estimated standard errors are close in SAS Survey
procedures, SUDAAN, and SPSS Complex Samples
procedures but are not exactly the same.
– There is no uniform direction for these
differences; sometimes the standard errors in
SPSS Complex Samples are slightly higher, and
sometimes they are slightly lower.

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 3.7. Complex samples
• Variation among methods for calculating standard
errors (cont’d)
– Standard errors in our reports and published tables were
calculated with formulas for estimation and may be slightly
different from those produced by SPSS Complex Samples
procedures.
• Ours tend to be slightly larger than those from SPSS.
– Standard errors produced by the general procedures in
SPSS—frequencies, crosstabs, or descriptives—differ
greatly from those generated by Complex Samples.

Don’t use unweighted standard errors!

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 3.7.1. Analysis and plan files

• How to prepare the data to use complex samples

• The first step is to create an analysis data set.
– Combine data or select an existing file from a given
source/wave.
• Once the analysis file has been created or selected,
two variables need to be added to that file.
– Add “Stratum” and “Cluster” found in n2sample.sav.
• When the analysis and sample data are joined, the
next step is to create a plan file.
– A plan file is an external file that contains the sample design
parameters and the appropriate weight.

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 3.7.1. Analysis and plan files

• The plan file is set up through a menu-driven wizard.

Analyze ► Complex Samples ► Prepare for Analysis

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 3.7.1. Analysis and plan files
– Select “Create a Plan File” and “Browse” to assign a name and
location of the plan file in the pop-up window.

Click “Next” to go to
the “Stage 1 Design
Variables” window.

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 3.7.1. Analysis and plan files
– Select “sample strata for sampling errors (v022)” and click the
right-facing arrow to move the variable to “Strata” box.
– Select “cluster number (v01)” and click the right-facing arrow to
move the variable to “Clusters” box
– Select “women’s individual weight (v05)”, and click right-facing
arrow to move variable to “Sample Weight” box.

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 3.7.1. Analysis and plan files
– Click “Next” to go to the “Stage 1 Estimation Method” window.
– Select “WR” for with replacement.
– Click “Finish.”

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 3.7.2. Frequencies

• How to run frequencies in Complex Samples

• Running a frequency or any other procedure is
not much different than in the base SPSS
procedures once the plan file has been created
and selected.
• From menu, select
Analyze ► Complex Samples ► Frequencies

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 3.7.2. Frequencies

– Select sample plan file.

• May not be necessary to select the file; will often
remember most recent file used.
• If no file is automatically selected, from “Browse” select
the sample plan file created for analysis.
• Select “Open” and “Continue.”
– Select “Statistics” and “Table Percent” in pop-up
window.
– Select variable(s) and click the right-facing arrow to
move to the “Frequency Tables” box.
– Click “OK” or “Paste” to run from syntax editor.

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 3.7.3. Crosstabs

• From menu, select

Analyze ► Complex Samples ► Crosstabs
– Select sample plan file.
– Select “Open” and “Continue.”
– Select “Statistics” and “Column Percent” in
pop-up window.
– Select the comparative (by-) variable for
“Column” and the analysis variables for “Row”
– Click “OK” or “Paste” to run from syntax editor.

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 3.7.4. Means

• From menu, select

Analyze ► Complex Samples ► Descriptives
– Select sample plan file.
– Select “Open” and “Continue.”
– Select the variable for “Measures.”
– Click “OK” or “Paste” to run from syntax editor.

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 3.7.5. Comparative means

• From menu, select

Analyze ► Complex Samples ► Descriptives
– Select sample plan file.
– Select “Open” and “Continue.”
– Select the variable and click the right-facing
arrow for “Measures” and comparative
variable for “Subpopulations.”
– Click “OK” or “Paste” to run from syntax editor.

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