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3 Microprocessor

1. The document describes the basic components and operation of a microprocessor-based computer system. It includes the central processing unit (CPU), memory (RAM and ROM), and input/output (I/O) devices connected by buses. 2. The CPU, also called a microprocessor, contains an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) to perform calculations, registers to store data temporarily, and a control unit that coordinates operations. It fetches and executes instructions stored in memory. 3. The memory stores both data and programs, with RAM used for runtime data and ROM used for startup instructions. The CPU communicates with these components and I/O devices via address, data, and control buses.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
36 views

3 Microprocessor

1. The document describes the basic components and operation of a microprocessor-based computer system. It includes the central processing unit (CPU), memory (RAM and ROM), and input/output (I/O) devices connected by buses. 2. The CPU, also called a microprocessor, contains an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) to perform calculations, registers to store data temporarily, and a control unit that coordinates operations. It fetches and executes instructions stored in memory. 3. The memory stores both data and programs, with RAM used for runtime data and ROM used for startup instructions. The CPU communicates with these components and I/O devices via address, data, and control buses.

Uploaded by

Kamran Saif
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Microprocessors

1
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A BASIC
COMPUTER SYSTEM
Basic computer system consist of a Central processing unit (CPU),
memory (RAM and ROM), input/output (I/O) unit.

Address bus

ROM RAM I/O I/O


CPU interface devices

Data bus Control


bus

Block diagram of a basic computer system


2
INTRODUCTION
• Fairchild Semiconductors (founded in 1957) invented the first IC
in 1959.

• In 1968, Robert Noyce, Gordan Moore, Andrew Grove


resigned from Fairchild Semiconductors. They founded their own
company Intel (Integrated Electronics). Intel grown from 3 man
start-up in 1968

3
MicroProcessor Generations
 Processor generations is simply have the enhanced feature
set and speed than the previous generations.
 The difference in processor micro-architecture is the main
difference in processor generations.
 Like the number and size
of transistors, clock rate
and microchip

4
4-BIT MICROPROCESSORS
• INTEL 4004
• Introduced in 1971.It was the first microprocessor by Intel. It
was a 4-bit µP. Its clock speed was 740KHz. It had 2,300
transistors. It could execute around 60,000 instructions per
second.

• INTEL 4040
• Introduced in 1974.It was also 4-bit µP.
.

5
8-BIT MICROPROCESSORS
 INTEL 8008
Introduced in 1972. It was first 8-bit µP. Its clock speed was 500
KHz. Could execute 50,000 instructions per second.

 INTEL 8080
Introduced in 1974. It was also 8-bit µP. Its clock speed was 2 MHz.
It had 6,000 transistors. Was 10 times faster than 8008.Could
execute 5,00,000 instructions per second.

 INTEL 8085
Introduced in 1976. It was also 8-bit µP. Its clock speed was 3 MHz.
Its data bus is 8-bit and address bus is 16-bit. It had 6,500
transistors. Could execute 7,69,230 instructions per second. It could
access 64 KB of memory. It had 246 instructions.

6
16-BIT MICROPROCESSORS
 INTEL 8086
It was first 16-bit µP. Its clock speed is 4.77 MHz, 8 MHz and 10
MHz, depending on the version. Its data bus is 16-bit and address
bus is 20-bit. It had 29,000 transistors. Could execute 2.5 million
instructions per second. It could access 1 MB of memory. It had
22,000 instructions. It had Multiply and Divide instructions.

 INTEL 8088
Introduced in 1979. It was also 16-bit µP. It was created as a cheaper
version of Intel’s 8086. It was a 16-bit processor with an 8-bit external
bus.

 INTEL 80186 & 80188 , INTEL 80286


Introduced in 1982. They were 16-bit µPs. Clock speed was 6 MHz.
INTEL 80286 was 16-bit µP but Its clock speed was 8 MHz.

7
32-BIT MICROPROCESSORS
• INTEL 80386
Introduced in 1986.It was first
32-bit µP.Its data bus is 32-bit
and address bus is 32-bit. It
could address 4 GB of memory.

• INTEL 80386
Introduced in 1989. It was also
32-bit µP. It had 1.2 million
transistors. Its clock speed
varied from 16 MHz to 100
MHz depending upon the
various versions. 17
 Introduced in
1993.
INTEL PENTIUM  It was also 32-bit µP.
 It was originally named 80586.
 Its clock speed was 66 MHz.

19
INTEL PENTIUM PRO
 Introduced in 1995.
 It was also 32-bit µP.
INTEL PENTIUM II
 Introduced in 1997.
 It was also 32-bit µP.

21
INTEL PENTIUM II XEON
 Introduced in 1998.
 It was also 32-bit µP.

22
INTEL PENTIUM III
 Introduced in 1999.
 It was also 32-bit µP.

23
INTEL PENTIUM IV
 Introduced in 2000.
 It was also 32-bit µP.

24
INTEL DUAL CORE

 Introduced in 2006.
 It is 32-bit or 64-bit µP.
 It has two cores.
 Both the cores have there
own internal bus and L1
cache, but share the
external bus and L2 cache
25
The following block diagram represent a
microprocessor-based system

16
1. Microprocessor

 the portion of a computer system that carries out the


instructions of a computer program
 The microprocessor is a programmable device that takes
in numbers, performs on them arithmetic or logical
operations according to the program stored in memory
and then produces other numbers as a result.
 The data in the instruction tells the processor what to do.

17
2. Memory
 Computer main memory comes in two principal varieties:
random-access memory (RAM) and read-only memory
(ROM).

 RAM can be read and written to anytime the CPU


commands it. In general, the contents of RAM are erased
when the power to the computer is turned off, but ROM
retains its data indefinitely.

 ROM is typically used to store the computer's initial start-up


instructions. ROM is pre-loaded with data and software that
never changes, so the CPU can only read from it In a PC,
the ROM contains a specialized program called the BIOS
that orchestrates loading the computer's operating system
from the hard disk drive into RAM whenever the computer is
turned on or reset.
18
The three cycle instruction
execution model
 To execute a program: the user enters its instructions in binary format
into the memory. The microprocessor then reads these instructions
and whatever data is needed from memory, executes the instructions
and places the results either in memory or produces it on an output
device.
 To execute a program, the microprocessor “reads” each instruction
from memory, “interprets” it, then “executes” it.

 To use the right names for the cycles:


 – The microprocessor fetches each instruction,

 – decodes it,

 – Then executes it.

 This sequence is continued until all instructions are performed.


19
Internal structure and basic
operation of microprocessor
Internally, the microprocessor is made up of 3 main units.
• The Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)
• The Control Unit.
• An array of registers for holding data while it is being
manipulated.

Address bus
ALU Register
Section
Data bus

Control and timing


section Control bus

Block diagram of a20 microprocessor


Internal structure and basic
operation of microprocessor

Micro
Processor

21
Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)
 The component that performs the arithmetic and logical
operations
 the most important components in a microprocessor, and is
typically the part of the processor that is designed first.
 able to perform the basic logical operations (AND, OR),
including the addition operation.
 The inclusion of inverters on the inputs enables the same
ALU hardware to perform the subtraction operation (adding
an inverted operand), and the operations NAND and NOR.

22
Internal structure of ALU

2 bits of ALU 4 bits of ALU


23
Control unit
 The circuitry that controls the flow of information through the
processor, and coordinates the activities of the other units
within it.
 In a way, it is the "brain within the brain", as it controls what
happens inside the processor, which in turn controls the rest
of the PC.
 On a regular processor, the control unit performs the tasks of
fetching, decoding, managing execution and then storing
results.

24
25
Instruction Set

26
Register sets
 The register section/array consists completely of circuitry
used to temporarily store data or program codes until
they are sent to the ALU or to the control section or to
memory.

 The number of registers are different for any particular CPU


and the more register a CPU have will result in easier
programming tasks.

 Registers are normally measured by the number of bits they


can hold, for example, an "8-bit register" or a "32-bit register".

27
Buses
Communication is needed among components. These three components
are connected by sets of parallel electric conductors (wires), called
buses. A bus is a set of parallel connections between components. There
are three types of buses:
 Address Bus: is used mainly by the microprocessor to indicate which
particular address in main memory or which I/O port needs to be
accessed.
 Data Bus: is used for retrieving information from main memory or I/O for
the microprocessor, or for storing the information from the microprocessor
to memory or I/O.
 Control Bus: is responsible for transmitting task commands such as “read”
and “write” to the memory and I/O components and for receiving
corresponding responses from them.

CPU Memory I/O

Address bus
Data bus
Control bus
Register Set & Buses

29
Single-core computer

30
Single-core CPU chip
the single core

31
Multi-core architectures
a new trend in computer architecture:
Replicate multiple processor cores on a single
die.

Core 1 Core 2 Core 3 Core 4

32
Multi-core CPU chip
Multi-core CPU chip
 The cores fit on a single processor socket
 Also called CMP (Chip Multi-Processor)

c c c c
o o o o
r r r r
e e e e

1 2 3 4

33
The cores run in parallel
thread 1 thread 2 thread 3 thread 4

c c c c
o o o o
r r r r
e e e e

1 2 3 4

34
Within each core, threads are time-
sliced (just like on a uniprocessor)
several several several several
threads threads threads threads

c c c c
o o o o
r r r r
e e e e

1 2 3 4

35
Why multi-core ?
 Difficult to make single-core
clock frequencies even higher
 Deeply pipelined circuits:
 heat problems
 speed of light problems
 difficult design and verification
 large design teams necessary
 server farms need expensive
air-conditioning
 Many new applications are multithreaded
 General trend in computer architecture (shift towards
more parallelism)
36
Interaction with the
Operating System
 OS perceives each core as a separate
processor

 OS scheduler maps threads/processes


to different cores

 Most major OS support multi-core today:


Windows, Linux, Mac OS X, …

37
Reduce Power Consumption
 Multicore
 One core with frequency 2 GHz
 Two cores with 1 GHz frequency (each)
 Same performance
 Two 1 GHz cores require half power/energy
 Power  freq2
 1GHz core needs one-fourth power compared to 2GHz core.

 New challenges – Performance


 How to utilize the cores
 It is difficult to find parallelism in programs to keep all
these cores busy.
pipelined vs. nonpipelined
execution
• Fetching and execution of each instruction is split into many
stages,
• all working in parallel.
• This allows the processing of up to five instructions to be
overlapped.
Instruction-level parallelism
 Parallelism at the machine-instruction level
 The processor can re-order, pipeline
instructions, split them into microinstructions,
do aggressive branch prediction, etc.
 Instruction-level parallelism enabled rapid
increases in processor speeds over the last
15 years

40
Thread-level parallelism (TLP)
 This is parallelism on a more coarser scale
 Server can serve each client in a separate
thread (Web server, database server)
 A computer game can do AI, graphics, and
physics in three separate threads
 Single-core superscalar processors cannot fully
exploit TLP
 Multi-core architectures are the next step in
processor evolution: explicitly exploiting TLP
41
General context:
Multiprocessors
 Multiprocessor is any
computer with several
processors

 SIMD
 Single instruction, multiple data Lemieux cluster,
Pittsburgh
 Modern graphics cards supercomputing
center
 MIMD
 Multiple instructions, multiple data
42
Multiprocessor memory types
 Shared memory:
In this model, there is one (large) common
shared memory for all processors

 Distributed memory:
In this model, each processor has its own
(small) local memory, and its content is not
replicated anywhere else

43
Multi-core processor is a special
kind of a multiprocessor:
All processors are on the same chip
 Multi-core processors are MIMD:
Different cores execute different threads
(Multiple Instructions), operating on different
parts of memory (Multiple Data).

 Multi-core is a shared memory multiprocessor:


All cores share the same memory

44
What applications benefit
from multi-core?
 Database servers
 Web servers (Web commerce) Each can
 Compilers run on its
own core
 Multimedia applications
 Scientific applications,
CAD/CAM
 In general, applications with
Thread-level parallelism
(as opposed to instruction-
level parallelism)
45

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