Lesson 16
Lesson 16
Structures
FORMATION OF THE COVALENT
BOND
• It was Gilbert Lewis who suggested that the chemical bond is
formed by sharing of electrons in atoms. For the hydrogen
molecule, this is depicted by
The examples of CO and N show that there are different types of covalent bonds
2 2
that are formed. Single bonds are formed when two atoms are held together by
one pair of electrons. Multiple bonds can be formed. A double bond is from the
sharing of two pairs of electrons such as in the case of O and C in CO . A triple
2
bond exists in N where the two N atoms are held by three pairs of electrons.
2
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
• Consider the covalent bond in the molecule
• Experimental evidence has shown that electrons are not equally shared
between H and F; the electrons spend more time near F rather than H.
Therefore the electron density is shifted more towards F rather than H. This
leaves the F end of the molecule partially negative, δ - , and the H end of the
molecule partially positive, δ+. Such a bond is referred to as a polar covalent
bond. The polar covalent bond is somewhere between a purely covalent
(nonpolar) bond and an ionic bond (where there is almost complete transfer
of electrons).
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
• A property that distinguishes the polarity of bonds is
electronegativity, the tendency of an atom in a chemical bond to
attract electrons toward itself.
• Electronegativity is a theoretical concept and devised as a relative
scale. That is, it can be estimated relative to, or in comparison to,
other elements in chemical bonds.
• Linus Pauling developed a relative scale of electronegativities which is
widely used in General Chemistry textbooks. In contrast, ionization
energies and electron affinities are physically measurable properties
of elements.
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
• In general, electronegativity increases from left to right
across a period. It increases as atomic radius decreases.
• The most electronegative elements are those in the upper
right hand side of the periodic table with fluorine as the
most electronegative.
• Metals especially the ones with large atomic radii are the
least electronegative.
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
WRITING LEWIS STRUCTURES
a. Draw a skeletal structure of the molecule putting bonded atoms next
to each other. In general, the least electronegative atom occupies the
central position. H and F usually occupy terminal (end) positions.
b. Count the total number of valence electrons from all the atoms in the
structure. Add electrons corresponding to the charge for negative
ions; subtract electrons corresponding to the charge for positive ions.
c. Distribute the valence electrons to the non-central atoms such that
these atoms fulfill the octet rule. Remaining electrons are assigned to
the central atom. Remember that bonds are equivalent to 2 electrons.
d. If the valence electrons are not enough, multiple bonds may be
formed.
EXERCISES
• Write the Lewis structure for NCl3.
• Note that the Lewis structure above has one double bond between
oxygen atoms and one single bond also with oxygen atoms. The
double bonds are expected to be shorter than a single bond.
• When measuring the bond lengths, we expect two values: one for the
shorter double bond and one for the longer single bond.
LEWIS STRUCTURE AND
RESONANCE
• However, experimental results show that there is only one bond
length obtained for ozone. The bond length is between that of a single
bond and a double bond. This means the above Lewis structure is not
an accurate representation of ozone. In fact, we are unable to write
the accurate representation using either the first or second Lewis
structure shown above.
• To resolve this discrepancy, we represent the ozone molecule using
the two structures presented as follows:
LEWIS STRUCTURE AND
RESONANCE