Design & Behavior of Overhead Bare

Aluminium Conductor

09th July, 2015

By : Pradeep Agnihotri
APAR INDUSTRIES LIMITED, INDIA

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 Table of content
1 Overview on Overhead Conductors

2 Basic material characteristics & Reference Standards

3 Manufacturing Processes

4 Factors for conductor designing

5 Conductor Design Parameters

6 Overview on HTLS Conductors

7 Conductor testing and evaluation

8 Packing, storage and handling

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 OVERVIEW ON OVERHEAD CONDUCTORS

A material intended to be used for carrying electric current consisting stranded

assembly of wires laid up together is called a conductor.

In the early days, simple copper wire or copper based bare conductors were
used but nowadays, more cost effective solutions, such as aluminum and
variations of aluminum alloy conductors are used extensively in the power
system. The conductor of an overhead power line is considered as the most
important component of the overhead line since its function is to transfer
electric power, and its contribution towards the total cost of the line is
significant.

Aluminum conductors are widely used in transmission and distribution lines

because it has about half the weight of a comparable resistance copper cable
(though larger diameter due to lower fundamental conductivity), as well as
being cheaper.

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 OVERVIEW ON OVERHEAD CONDUCTORS

 The conductor is the most important component of transmission lines.

Every transmission line is laid with a purpose of transmitting definite
quantity of power (Generally in Mega Watt.) with voltage class 33kV, 66kV,
110kV, 132 kV, 220 kV, 400kV & above to transmit a pre-determined
quantum of power over a pre-determined length.

 A characteristic feature distinguishing bare overhead conductors from other

energy carriers is to utilize air as a natural insulation for conductors
suspended from towers; specially designed isolators are present on the
line supports.

 Bare conductors are so far the most preferred means of transport of

energy, especially in case of power lines of high and medium voltage. The
most commonly presently used traditional bare conductors can be divided
into six types, differing mainly in materials used for their fabrication which
are shown in the next slides.

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 TYPES AND CONFIGURATION OF CONDUCTORS

The conductors for the bare overhead lines of the distribution and transmission
networks are classified in following families :

 The homogeneous conductors in pure aluminum (AAC)

 The bi-metallic conductors in aluminum and zinc coated steel (ACSR)

 The bi-metallic conductors in aluminum and aluminum-clad steel (ACSR/AW)

 The homogeneous conductors in aluminum alloy (AAAC)

 The bi-metallic conductors in aluminum alloy and zinc coated steel (AACSR)

 The bi-metallic conductor in aluminum and aluminum alloy (ACAR)

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TYPES AND CONFIGURATION OF CONDUCTORS

All Aluminum Conductors (AAC)

This conductor is also known as aluminum stranded conductor. This conductor is

manufactured from electrolytically refined (E.C.GRADE) aluminum, having purity of minimum
99.5% of aluminum. 

They are generally used in small sizes (section) because their mechanical characteristics are
not so good for bigger sizes except for the bus-bars and the straps.

All aluminum conductors are made up of one or more strands of aluminum wire depending
on the end usage. 

These conductors are standardized in the main countries and by the main organizations as :

Country International Australia India Europe UK

Standard IEC 61089 AS 1531 IS 398 Part-1 EN 50182 BS 215 Part-1

Country Germany USA Canada Sweden

Standard DIN 48203 ASTM B231 CSA C49.4 SS_424 08 02

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TYPES AND CONFIGURATION OF CONDUCTORS

Aluminium conductor zinc coated steel reinforced (ACSR)

This conductor consists of a solid or stranded steel core surrounded by strands of aluminium
(E.C. GRADE).

The option to change the steel/aluminum ratio allows for various application.

The higher strength  ACSR conductors are used for river crossings, overhead ground wires,
installations involving extra long spans etc..

Against any given resistance of conductor, ACSR conductor may be manufactured for having a

wide range of tensile strength as per requirement.

The principal advantage of these conductors are high tensile strength and light weight with longer
spans as well as with lesser supports.

These conductors are standardized in the main countries and by the main organizations as :
Country International Australia India Europe UK
Standard IEC 61089 AS 3607 IS 398 Part-2 & 5 EN 50182 BS 215 Part-2

Country Germany USA Canada Sweden France

Standard DIN 48204 ASTM B232 CSA 49.1M87 SS_424 08 07 NFC 34-120

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 TYPES AND CONFIGURATION OF CONDUCTORS

Aluminum conductor, aluminum clad steel reinforced (ACSR/AW)

Aluminium Conductors, Aluminium Clad Steel Reinforced (ACSR/AS or ACSR/AW) are
concentrically stranded conductors with one or more layers of hard drawn 1350-H19
aluminium wires on Aluminium Clad steel wire core. The core can be single wire or
stranded depending on the size. 

The mechanical properties of ACSR/AS conductors are similar to ACSR conductors

but offers improved ampacity and resistance to corrosion because of the presence of
aluminium clad steel wires in the core.

These conductors are better replacement for ACSR conductors where corrosive
conditions are severe.
Features
 Good mechanical properties
 Improved electrical characteristics
 Excellent corrosion resistance

These conductors are standardized in the main countries and by the main
organizations as :
Country International Australia USA Germany
Standard IEC 61089 AS 1220 Part-3 ASTM B 549 DIN 48200 Part-8

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 TYPES AND CONFIGURATION OF CONDUCTORS

All Aluminum Alloy conductor (AAAC)

This conductor is made from aluminum-magnesium-silicon alloy of high electrical
conductivity containing enough magnesium silicide to give it better mechanical
properties after treatment.

These conductors are generally made out of aluminium alloy 6201. 

These homogeneous conductors in aluminum alloy show many advantages i.e.

lightness, high breaking load allowing long spans and simplification of the
accessories.

These conductors are suitable for the long spans network..

Features 
 High strength to weight ratio
 Better sag characteristics
 Improved electrical properties

These conductors are standardized in the main countries and by the main
organizations
Country as :
International Australia India Europe UK
Standard IEC 61089 AS 1531 IS 398 Part-4 EN 50182 BS 3242

Country Germany USA Canada France

Standard DIN 48203 T6 ASTM B 399 CSA C49.1M87 NFC 34-125

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 TYPES AND CONFIGURATION OF CONDUCTORS

Aluminum Alloy conductor, zinc coated steel reinforced (AACSR)

AACSR is a concentrically stranded conductor composed of one or more layers
of  Aluminium -Magnesium -Silicon Alloy wire stranded around a zinc coated
steel core. The core can be of either single wire or stranded multi wire. 

These bi-metallic conductors are recommended in the hard climatic

environments or for river crossings.

Features 
 Offers optimal strength for line design.
 Improved strength to weight ratio
 Ideal for extra long span with heavy load 

These conductors are standardized in the main countries and by the main
organizations as :

Country International Europe Germany USA Canada France

Standard IEC 61089 EN 50182 DIN 48206 ASTM B 711 CSA C49.1M87 NFC 34-125

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 TYPES AND CONFIGURATION OF CONDUCTORS
Aluminum conductor, Alloy reinforced (ACAR)
Aluminium Conductor Alloy Reinforced (ACAR) is formed by concentrically
stranded wires of Aluminium 1350 on high strength Aluminium -Magnesium –
Silicon (AlMgSi) alloy core.
The number of wires of Aluminum1350 & AlMgSi alloy depends on the conductor
design. In changing the relative ratio of the two materials, it is possible to reach a
lot of designs.

ACAR conductor is a very good balance between the mechanical and electrical
properties therefore makes ACAR the best choice where the ampacity, strength
and light weight are the main consideration of the line design. These conductors
are extensively used in overhead transmission and distribution lines..
Features 
 Improved strength to weight ratio
 Better mechanical properties
 Improved electrical characteristics 

These conductors, not so popular as the previous ones, are standardized in the
countries as following :
Country International Europe USA Canada
Standard IEC 61089 EN 50182 ASTM B 524 CSA C49.1M87

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 TYPES AND CONFIGURATION OF CONDUCTORS
There are other conductors which are manufactured from Al-Mg-Si (aluminum-
magnesium-silica) raw materials but covered under special alloy category .
These conductors are Known as
1. AL59 Conductors
2. AAAC/1120 Conductors
AL59 alloy conductor complies with the standard SS 424 08 14 and AL59 alloy wires complies
with standard SS 424 08 13 that specifies the limits for conductivity, strength and creep
irrespective of the chemical composition which is not discussed in the standard.
Other properties of AL59 conductors are similar to conventional AAAC conductors.

It was originally proposed as a conductor for insulated cables but because of its good creep
properties it is used by the Swedish Power Board for transmission lines.

In the early 1970's AL59 was conceived and patented in Sweden. Hence it was introduced into
Australia as AAAC/1120 alloy and possess same electrical and mechanical properties as that
of AL59 allloy.
Today this alloy is accepted for most new transmission lines in Australia, it is now being
adopted by New Zealand and attracting interest in Israel, Africa and Asia.
AAAC/1120 alloy wires & conductors complies with the standard AS 1531. The standard was
made in reference to Swedish standards of AL59 wires and conductors. The chemical
composition of AAAC/1120 alloy is discussed in AS 2848.1-1998 standard.

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 TYPES AND CONFIGURATION OF CONDUCTORS
AL59 & AAAC/1120 Conductors
These conductors are made from aluminum-magnesium-silicon alloy of high
electrical conductivity containing enough magnesium silicide to give it better
mechanical properties after treatment.

These conductors are generally made out of aluminium alloy AL59 or

AAAC/1120 wire. 

These homogeneous conductors in aluminum alloy show many advantages :

 15% to 30% more current carrying capacity as that of ACSR of the same size,
while maximum sag remains the same & working tension is lesser than that of
ACSR.
 Resistivity is substantially lesser than that of ACSR & AAAC conductors,
resulting in lower I2R losses.
 Higher corrosion resistance than ACSR and AAC Conductors

These conductors are suitable for the long spans network..

Features  √ High strength to weight ratio
√ Better sag characteristics
√ Improved electrical properties

These conductors are standardized in the countries

Country as : Sweden & Norway Australia
Standard SS 424 08 14 AS 1531-1991

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TYPES AND CONFIGURATION OF CONDUCTORS

Conductor Configuration / Construction

The conductor discussed in the above slides can be designed in
homogeneous and non-homogeneous constructions.
In a homogeneous conductor - The core consists of a single strand
identical to the outer strands.
Since all the strands are the same diameter, one can show that the
innermost layer always consists of 6 strands, the second layer of 12
strands, etc., making conductors having 1, 7, 19, 37, 61, 91, or 128
strands.
In a non-homogeneous conductor - The strands in the core will not be
of the same diameter as of aluminium wires over it.
However, the number of strands always increases by 6 in each
succeeding layer.
Some typical construction of conductors with homogeneous and non-
homogeneous construction are shown in the next slide

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 TYPES AND CONFIGURATION OF CONDUCTORS

Conductors with homogeeous construction.

Conductors with non-homogeneous construction.

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 Table of content
1 Overview on Overhead Conductors

2 Basic material characteristics & Reference Standards

3 Manufacturing Processes

4 Factors for conductor designing

5 Conductor Design Parameters

6 Overview on HTLS Conductors

7 Conductor testing and evaluation

8 Packing, storage and handling

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 Basic material characteristics

Materials commonly used in conductors are aluminum, aluminium alloy and steel. The properties of these
common materials fabricated as wires are summarized in Table 1 & 2.
Galvanized steel wires are combined with aluminum in the most common type of overhead conductor Aluminum
Conductor Steel Reinforced (ACSR).
The use of copper is uncommon in modern transmission lines since it weighs and usually costs considerably
more than aluminum conductor of the same resistance
Depending upon the operating temperature of conductor, different Al.Alloys are selected to manufacture
conductors.
Table 1
Wire Type AL 1350-H19 AL 6201 AL 59 TAL TAL
Properties Type AT1 Type AT3
Tensile Strength (N/mm ) 2
160 ~ 200 295 ~ 330 230 ~ 250 159 ~ 169 159 ~ 176
Elongation (%) 1.20 ~ 2.0 3.0 ~ 3.5 2.0 (min) 1.5 ~ 2.0 1.5 ~ 2.0
Resistivity at at 20°C. (Ώmm2/Km)
Mean = 29.05
28.264 32.84 Individual = 29.30 28.735 28.735

Conductivity at 20°C. (% IACS) 61 52.5 59 60 60

Constant mass temperature coefficient of
resistance at 20°C. ( /°C) 0.00403 0.0036 0.0038 0.004 0.004

Density at 20°C (g/cm3) 2.703 2.703 2.700 2.703 2.703

Modulus of Elasticity (N/mm2) 68000 68000 68000 68000 68000
Coefficient of linear expansion (/°C) 0.000023 0.000023 0.000023 0.000023 0.000023
Allowable operating temperature (°C)
75 85 95 150 210

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 Basic material characteristics

The Strength of conductor is determined by the steel core of conductor.

Steel wires with appropriate strength is selected to match the required Breaking load of
conductor which in tern is govern by the tension used at every day temperature or Factor of
Safety.
There are core wires available with different type of corrosion protection coating having different
operating temperatures.
Depending upon the operating temperature of conductor, different types of coatings are
selected to manufacture conductors.
Table 2
Wire Type HTGS (Regular) HTGS (EST) HTGS (UST) Aluminium Gulfan Al. Clad Invar
Cladded Steel
Properties (20SA) EHS & UHS

Tensile Strength (N/mm2) 1290 ~ 1450 1500 ~ 1825 1825 ~ 1965 1070 ~ 1340 1450~ 1825 932~ 1080
Elongation (%) 3.0 ~ 4.0 2.0 ~ 3.5 3.0 ~ 3.5 1.5 3.0 ~ 3.5 1.5 (min)
Resistivity at at 20°C. (Ώmm2/Km)
191.57 191.57 191.57 84.8 191.57 124.94

Conductivity at 20°C. (% IACS) 9 9 9 20.3 9 13.80

Constant mass temperature coefficient of
resistance at 20°C. ( /°C) 0.0044 0.0044 0.0044 0.0036 0.004 0.0039

Density at 20°C (g/cm3) 7.78 7.78 7.78 6.59 7.78 7.1

Modulus of Elasticity (N/mm2) 193000 193000 193000 162000 193000 152000
Coefficient of linear expansion (/°C) 0.0000115 0.0000115 0.0000115 0.000013 0.0000115 0.000037
Allowable operating temperature (°C)
150 150 150 200 250 290

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 Basic material characteristics

Chemical Composition of steel wires based on their tensile strength (ACSR CORE)

% Composition

Elements High Strength wires High Strength wires

Regular wires upto 1450
above 1450 Mpa to above 1620Mpa to
Mpa
1620Mpa 1965Mpa

Carbon 0.50 to 0.88 0.50 to 0.88 0.50 to 1.00

Manganese 0.50 to 1.10 0.50 to 1.30 0.40 to 1.30
Phosphorus, max 0.035 max 0.035 max 0.035
Sulfur, max 0.045 max 0.045 max 0.045
Silicon 0.10 to 0.35 0.10 to 0.35 0.15 to 0.60

% Composition
Elements
Invar Wires
Carbon 0.15 - 0.40

Manganese 0.20 – 0.60

Phosphorus, 0.025 (max)

Sulfur, 0.02 (max)

Silicon 0.30 (max)

Nickle 34.0 – 42.0

Iron Balance

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 Basic material characteristics
An anti-corrosive grease is applied on the gaps between stranded wires and their external
surfaces as a corrosion protection.

The grease used in conductors shall have

 High oxidation stability,
 Good water resistance,
 High anti-rust and anti-corrosion properties
 Excellent structural stability
 Good adherence properties.
 Neutral & compatible to conductors.

Based on the above properties IS 7623 has standardized the grease in Types and grades.
Type 1 : Regular lithium base grease
Type 2 : Lithium base grease containing extreme pressure additives.

Each types are further bifurcated into three grades, grade-1, grade-2 and grade-3.

For application in conductors, we use Type -1, Grade-2 grease with the properties as below.
Colour Yellowish Brown

Drop point °C 1800C

Worked penetration (consistency) @ 25°C ± 5°C 265 - 295

Density gm/cm3 0.87

Structural stability No oil separation

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 Basic material characteristics
IEC 61394 & EN 50326 Standards for Characteristics of Greases for overhead line
Conductors distinguishes greases based on their application as under :

 IEC 61394 Standard

Type I: products generally applied in the cold state, for example greases: semi-solid
or solid products consisting essentially of a stabilized mixture of mineral or synthetic
oil and thickeners such as metal soaps or inorganic compounds;
Type II : products generally applied in the hot state, for example petrolatum : semi-
solid , or solid products made up essentially of microcrystalline waxes associated with
small quantities of mineral oil and organic additives.

 EN 50326 Standard
Type A - grease applied without heating, for example greases consisting essentially of
a stabilised mixture of mineral or synthetic oil and thickeners such as metal soaps or
inorganic compounds.

Type B - grease applied with heating, for example greases consisting of petrolatum,
waxes associated with small quantities of mineral oil and organic additives;

Based on the grease application at our works we use Type I or Type A grease for
conductors.

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 Basic material characteristics

Application of grease to the core or infusion of the complete conductor provides better corrosion
protection.
Conductors with grease filled are used in the corrosive areas like coastal areas or industrial zones

Application of grease is generally divided into four types according to the method of grease
coating.

Case-1 :
Steel core greased. Case-2 :
All the conductor
greased except the
outer layer

Case-4 :
Case-3 :
All the conductor greased
All the conductor greased
except the outer surface of
including the outer layer
the wires in the outer layer.

Weight of grease in a conductor can be calculated by multiplying the area of voids between the wires of conductor with density
of grease (0.87 g/cm3) and fill factor of 0.8
Fill factor as per IEC 61089 is 0.7 and as per EN 50182 is 0.8.

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 Basic material characteristics

For conductors with continuous operation up to 90°C, the minimum drop point of
grease required is ≥ 110°C.

However, we keep our minimum requirement of 180°C as per IS : 7623.

For other high ampacity conductors which operates at higher temperature, the
requirement of minimum drop point of grease may go upto 300°C.

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 Reference Standards for material and Conductor Properties
Standard Used for
IS 398 (Part-1):1996 Aluminum Stranded Conductors (AAC)
IS 398 (Part-2):1996 Aluminum Conductors, Galvanized Steel Reinforced (ACSR)
IS 398 (Part-3):1976 Aluminium Conductors, Aluminized Steel Reinforced.
IS 398 (Part-4):1994 Aluminum Alloy Stranded Conductors (AAAC)
IS 398 (Part-5):1992 Aluminum Conductors, Galvanized Steel Reinforced (ACSR). For extra high voltage ( 400 kV and above)

IS 1778:1980 Reels and drums for bare conductors

IS 5484:1978 EC grade aluminum rods produced by continuous casting and rolling
IS 4826:1979 Hot dipped galvanized coating on round steel wires
IEC 61089 Round wire concentric lay overhead electrical stranded conductors (AAC, AAAC, ACSR, AACSR)
IEC 60104 Aluminum-Magnesium-Silicon alloy wire for overhead line conductors
IEC 60889 Hard-drawn aluminum wire for overhead line conductor
IEC 60888 Zinc coated steel wires for stranded conductors.
IEC 61232 Aluminum-Clad steel wires for electrical purposes
IEC 62004 Thermal-resistant aluminum alloy wire for overhead line conductor
EN 50182 Thermal-resistant aluminum alloy wire for overhead line conductor (AAC, AAAC, ACSR, AACSR)
EN 60889 Hard-drawn aluminum wire for overhead line conductor
EN 50183 Aluminum-Magnesium-Silicon alloy wire for overhead line conductors
EN 50189 Zinc coated steel wires for stranded conductors.
EN 61232 Aluminum-Clad steel wires for electrical purposes
ASTM B 231 Concentric-Lay-Stranded Aluminum 1350 Conductors (AAC)
ASTM B 232 Concentric-Lay-Stranded Aluminum Conductors, Coated-Steel Reinforced (ACSR)
ASTM B 399 Concentric-Lay-Stranded Aluminum-Alloy 6201-T81 Conductors (AAAC)
ASTM B 524 Concentric-Lay-Stranded Aluminum Conductors, Aluminum-Alloy Reinforced (ACAR)

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Reference Standards for material and Conductor Properties
Standard Used for
ASTM B 549 Concentric-Lay-Stranded Aluminum Conductors, Aluminum-Clad Steel Reinforced (ACSR/AW)
ASTM B 711 Concentric-Lay-Stranded Aluminum-Alloy Conductors, Steel Reinforced (AACSR)
ASTM B 856 Concentric-Lay-Stranded Aluminum Conductors, Coated
Steel Supported (ACSS)
ASTM B 857 Shaped Wire Compact Concentric-Lay-Stranded Aluminum Conductors, Coated-Steel Supported (ACSS/TW)
ASTM B 230 Aluminum 1350–H19 Wire for Electrical Purposes
ASTM B 398 Aluminum-Alloy 6201-T81 Wire for Electrical Purposes
ASTM B 415 Hard-Drawn Aluminum-Clad Steel Wire
ASTM B 416 Concentric-Lay-Stranded Aluminum-Clad Steel Conductors
ASTM B 498 Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Core Wire for Use in Overhead Electrical Conductors
ASTM B 502 Aluminum-Clad Steel Core Wire for Aluminum Conductors, Aluminum-Clad Steel Reinforced
ASTM B 606 High-Strength Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Core Wire for Aluminum and Aluminum-Alloy Conductors, Steel
Reinforced.
ASTM B 609 Aluminum 1350 Round Wire, Annealed and Intermediate Tempers, for Electrical Purposes
ASTM B 802 Zinc–5 % Aluminum-Mischmetal Alloy-Coated Steel Core Wire for Aluminum Conductors, Steel Reinforced
ASTM B 803 High-Strength Zinc–5 % Aluminum-Mischmetal Alloy-Coated Steel Core Wire for Use in Overhead Electrical
Conductors
ASTM B 957 Extra-High-Strength and Ultra-High-Strength Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Core Wire for Overhead Electrical
Conductors
ASTM B 958 Extra-High-Strength and Ultra-High-Strength Class A Zinc–5% Aluminum-Mischmetal Alloy-Coated Steel Core
Wire for Use in Overhead Electrical Conductors
SS 424 08 13 Aluminum alloy wire for stranded conductors for overhead lines - AL 59 wire
SS 424 08 14 Aluminum alloy stranded conductors for overhead lines - AL 59 Conductors
AS 1531-1991 Bare overhead Aluminum and aluminum alloy Conductors (AAC, AAAC & AAAC/1120)

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 Increase in length due to stranding

 When straightened out, each wire in any particular layer on a

stranded conductor, except the central wire, is longer than the
stranded conductor by an amount depending on the lay ratio of
that layer.

 In calculating the stranding constants the mean lay ratio, i.e. the
arithmetic mean of the relevant minimum and maximum values
are considered for each layer.

 Different standard specifies different lay ratios so the stranding

constant of conductors varies in different standards.

 Stranding constants of the most common standards of Overhead

conductors are specified in the tables in next slides.

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 Increase in length due to stranding
ASTM B 232 IEC 61089
Stranding Standard Increments Due Rating Factors Stranding of conductor Increment (increase)
Design to Stranding (for rated strength) %
Aluminum/ (for mass per unit length
Steel and resistivity) Aluminium Steel Mass Electrical
Increase Resistance
No. of No.of No. of No.of Aluminum Steel
Aluminum (%) Steel (%) Aluminum (%) Steel (%) wires layers wires layers
6/1 1.5 0 96 96 6 1 1 - 1.52 - 1.52
7/1 1.5 0 96 96 18 2 1 - 1.90 - 1.90
8/1 2.0 0 96 96 7 1 - - 1.31 - 1.31
18/1 2.0 0 93 96 18 2 1 - 1.90 - 1.90
36/1 2.0 0 91 96 22 2 7 1 2.04 0.43 2.04
12/7 2.5 0.4 96 96
26 2 7 1 2.16 0.43 2.16
24/7 2.5 0.4 93 96
19 2 - - 1.80 - 1.80
26/7 2.5 0.4 93 96
30/7 2.75 0.4 93 96 37 3 - - 2.04 - 2.04
42/7 2.5 0.4 91 96 61 4 - - 2.19 - 2.19
45/7 2.5 0.4 91 96 45 3 7 1 2.23 0.43 2.23
48/7 2.5 0.4 91 96 54 3 7 1 2.33 0.43 2.33
54/7 2.5 0.4 91 96 72 4 7 1 2.32 0.43 2.32
72/7 3.0 0.4 90 96 84 4 7 1 2.40 0.43 2.40
16/19 2.5 0.6 96 93
91 5 - - 2.30 - 2.30
30/19 2.75 0.6 93 93
54 3 19 2 2.33 0.77 2.33
54/19 3.0 0.6 91 93
76/19 3.0 0.6 90 93 72 4 19 2 2.32 0.77 2.32
84/19 3.0 0.6 90 93 84 4 19 2 2.40 0.77 2.40

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Increase in length due to stranding

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 Table of content
1 Overview on Overhead Conductors

2 Basic material characteristics & Reference Standards

3 Manufacturing Processes

4 Factors for conductor designing

5 Conductor Design Parameters

6 Overview on HTLS Conductors

7 Conductor testing and evaluation

8 Packing, storage and handling

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 Conductor Manufacturing Process

Aluminium Ingots Alloying Elements Melting & Continuous Casting Rolling Mill

Heat Treatment Wire Spools Wire Drawing Aluminum / Alloy Wire Rods

Galvanized steel wires Stranding Machine Conductor Packing Storage

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 Manufacturing Process
FLOW CHART OF CONTINUOUS CASTING AND ROLLING (CCR) PROCESS

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 Manufacturing Process
FLOW CHART OF ACSR,AAAC & AACSR CONDUCTOR MANUFACTURING PROCESS

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 Manufacturing Process
FLOW CHART OF GZTACSR CONDUCTOR MANUFACTURING PROCESS

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 Manufacturing Process
FLOW CHART OF ACCC CONDUCTOR MANUFACTURING PROCESS

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 Table of content
1 Overview on Overhead Conductors

2 Basic material characteristics & Reference Standards

3 Manufacturing Processes

4 Factors for conductor designing

5 Conductor Design Parameters

6 Overview on HTLS Conductors

7 Conductor testing and evaluation

8 Packing, storage and handling

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Factors for conductor Selection / Designing
The selection of conductor for the transmission line is dependent upon
many factors, such as :

 The Quantum of power to be transmitted,

 The amount of current to be handled,
 Length of the transmission line,
 The climatic conditions of the terrain through which the line is expected
to pass,
 The rural, urban, industrial, & oceanic areas need definite attention
while selecting the conductor.
BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR SELECTION OF CONDUCTOR

 The conductor should have a cross section which allows a passage of

particular amount of current.
 Lower electrical resistance
 The continuous current rating.
 Short time current rating.
 Lower thermal elongation (per degree C).
 Higher annealing temperatures.
 Sag of conductor.

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 SELECTION OF CONDUCTOR

The selection of conductor for overhead EHV Transmission Line is a very

precise job and calls for accurate calculations.
Selection based on Voltage

 The higher the line voltage higher is the expected

power flow on the line.
 The size of the conductor increases with the voltage.
 When the cross sectional area of the conductors
available in the national and international market falls
short of the required amount of current to be
transmitted, a bundle of conductor is required to be
used.
 The bundle can be twin, single, quadruple or multiple,
depending upon the voltage level.

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 SELECTION OF CONDUCTOR

Selection based on Current

 The amount of current to be transmitted have a direct relation

with the cross sectional area of the conductor.
 The size of the conductor increases with the increase in
current.
 It is preferred to keep the current density in a conductor within
1.0 to 1.3 A/mm2 .
 Line losses will increase with the increase in current due to I2R
losses with same cross section of conductor.
 Due to higher current, the temperature of the conductor will
increase and therefore the catenary length of the conductor will
increase.
 Ground clearance may fall short with the increase in centenary
length of the conductor.

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 SELECTION OF CONDUCTOR

Selection based on Strength

 Tension of the conductor in a catenary is maintained considering

Factor of safety of 4.0 to 4.5 (ie. 22% to 25% of conductor rated
strength) at no wind condition and every day temperature.
 Sag of the conductor is inversely proportional to the tension of the
conductor.
 Hence sag of the conductor is controlled by conductor rated
strength.
 When the conductor has to be used for a typical atmosphere or
for a very high security application, the strength of the conductor
becomes most important.
 The terrain which experience high wind velocity over a longer
period of the year, the ACSR Conductor with stronger core is
recommended.
 Where the wind velocity is not very high through out the year but
the line is susceptible to heavy pollution, the ACSR Conductor will
lose its preference to AAAC

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 SELECTION OF CONDUCTOR

Selection Based on Environment

 The maximum, minimum and average ambient temperature
influences conductor current rating and sag.
 Electrical conductor ratings is based on cross wind speeds and
longitudinal wind speeds.
 Solar radiation is required for conductor rating as the conductor
may be affected by exposure to high thermal and ultraviolet (UV)
radiation.
 Ice and snow fall is required for design of conductor sags and
tension as these factors influence the weight of conductor.
 The line conductor and other materials are many times subjected
to Industrial Pollution, Oceanic Pollution, Salt Pan, High humidity
etc. Besides, the line is also subjected to varied wind velocities,
varied temperatures and thunder storms.
 For polluted zone with low wind velocity we can use AAAC
conductor.
 In zone with continuous wind velocity we can use high strength
still core with allminium/alluminium alloy layers.

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 SELECTION OF CONDUCTOR
Selection Based on the span
 As the voltage of the line increases, the amount of the power to be handled
also increases. Thus the size of the conductor also increases.
 With the increase in voltage the normal span also to be increase to reduce
the cost of insulators and line hardware.
 To take care of the span, conductor has also to be appropriate. Normally
the spans which are standardized are as follows:
Nominal System Voltage
No of Circuits Span Range
KV
1 180 - 305
33
2 180 - 305
1 204 - 305
66
2 240 - 320
1 305 - 335
110
2 305 - 335
1 305 - 365
132
2 305 - 380
1 320 - 380
220
2 320 - 380
1 350 - 400
400
2 350 - 400

 In the river crossing or creek crossing section the factor of safety on

conductor is kept higher then for the normal run of the line. If the sag is to
be restricted we can go in for a conductor having high UTS.

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 SELECTION OF CONDUCTOR

Selection Base on the Production and feasibility.

when we select a conductor, we have to be near by the size of
conductors which are available in National / International market.
This will ensure quick delivery, better service and better inter
changeability.

Conclusion :

 The selection of base conductor for EHV overhead lines is a job of

precision. Any error in selection will have direct impact on the cost of
the line or on the reliability of the line or on both of them.
 There are number of considerations which we have to take into account
before deciding the type of conductor to be used on the line.

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 CONSTRAINTS IN CONDUCTOR SELECTION & DESIGN

 There are a number of physical and economic limits which affect the
choice of conductor in the design process:
 Any increase in conductor diameter yields increased wind and ice loads
on the existing structures. Required structure loads become impractical
or uneconomic at some level.
 As the size of the conductor increases, the cost of the conductor itself
increases.
 As the resistance of the conductor increases, cost of electrical losses over
the life of the line decrease.
 Increasing the size of conductor of any given type, using a stronger
conductor of any given size, or stringing any conductor to a higher
tension, will yield increased longitudinal broken wire loads and increased
transverse tension loads on angle structures.

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 Table of content
1 Overview on Overhead Conductors

2 Basic material characteristics & Reference Standards

3 Manufacturing Processes

4 Factors for conductor designing

5 Conductor Design Parameters

6 Overview on HTLS Conductors

7 Conductor testing and evaluation

8 Packing, storage and handling

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 Conductor Design Parameters

Various studies have been made on important components of transmission line

conductors . We shall discuss in brief regarding factors & design considered
based on the below parameters.

A. Unit weight of conductor

B. DC Resistance of conductor
C. AC resistance of conductor
D. Rated strength of the conductor
E. Current carrying capacity of the conductor
F. Short Circuit withstandibility of the conductor
G. Modulus of elasticity of conductor
H. Coefficient of linear expansion of conductor
I. Sag & Tension of conductor
J. Creep Characteristics
K. Vibration Characteristics
L. Corona & RIV Characteristics

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 Unit weight of conductor
Calculation procedure as per IS, BS and AS.
 When straightened out, each wire in any particular layer of standard conductor, except the
central wire, is longer than the stranded conductor by an amount depending on the lay ratio
of that layer.
 The total mass of any length of conductor is, therefore, obtained by multiplying the mass of
an equal length of straight wire by the approximate constant based on mean lay ratios set
out in specifications. The masses of the steel core and aluminum wires are calculated
separately and added together.

 Example :
For ACSR Moose conductor as per IS 398 Part-V. Size = Al.54+St.7/3.53mm
1. Weight of individual Al. wire = (cross sectional area of wire) x (density)
= (3.532x3.14/4) x (2.703)
= 26.454 Kg/Km
2. Weight of individual St. wire = (cross sectional area of wire) x (density)
= (3.532x3.14/4) x (7.8)
= 76.337 Kg/Km
Stranding constant of 54 Aluminium wires = 55.43
Stranding constant of 7 steel wires = 7.045
3. Unit weight of conductor = (weight of Aluminium wire x stranding constant) +
(weight of Steel wire x Stranding constant)
= (26.454 x 55.43) + (76.337 x 7.045)
= 2004.14 Kg/Km

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 Unit weight of conductor
Calculation procedure as per IEC, ASTM, EN 50182 and NFC
 For a conductor composed of (n) nos of wires, with (a) nos of steel wires and (n-a) nos of
aluminum wires let us consider the following.
 WU = Unit weight of conductor in Kg/Km
 ST = Cross sectional area of steel wires.
 SA = Cross sectional area of Aluminum wires.
 Ki = Stranding constant as specified in reference standards.
WU = ( 2.703 x SA x Ki ) + ( 7.78 x ST x Ki )
 Example : (Calculation considering the stranding constant of IEC 61089 standard)
For ACSR Moose conductor. Size = Al.54+St.7/3.53mm

1. Cross sectional area of Aluminum wires (S A) = (Area of aluminum wire) x (No of wires)
= (3.532 x 3.14/4) x (54)
= 528.22 mm2
2. Cross sectional area of Steel wires (S T) = (Area of Steel wire) x (No of wires)
= (3.53 x 3.14/4) x (7)
2

= 68.47 mm2
Unit weight of conductor in Kg/Km (W U ) = ( 2.703 x SA x Ki ) + ( 7.78 x ST x Ki )
= ( 2.703 x 528.22 x 1.0233 ) + (7.78 x 68.47 x 1.0043)
= (1461.04) + (534.987)
= 1996 Kg/Km

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 DC Resistance of conductor
Calculation procedure as per IS, BS and AS.
The resistance of any length of stranded conductor is the resistance of the same length of
anyone aluminum wire multiplied by a constant as specified in the reference standard against the
construction of conductor.

Resistance of individual wire 20°C = Resistivity 20°C / cross sectional area of individual wire

 Example :
For ACSR Moose conductor. Size = Al.54+St.7/3.53mm

1. Resistance of individual wire at 20°C = Resistivity at 20°C / cross sectional area of individual wire
= 28.264 / (3.53 xπ/4)
2

= 2.889 Ώ/Km
2. Stranding constant of electrical resistance = 0.01894
3. Resistance of conductor at 20°C = 2.889 Ώ/Km x 0.01894
= 0.05472 Ώ/Km

Due to stranding of conductor, all the wires in the conductor are longer than the stranded conductor by an
amount depending on the lay ratio of that layer. Every standard has specified the increase in length due to
stranding as stranding constants.

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 DC Resistance of conductor

Calculation procedure as per IEC, ASTM, EN 50182 and NFC

In these international standards, the increase in length due to stranding (stranding constants)
are specified in terms of percentage.
For calculation of resistance of conductor,
 Calculate the resistance of individual wire.
 Calculate the resistance of conductor considering all the wires in parallel combination.
 Then increase the value by the % increment specified against the construction of
conductor.
 Example :
For ACSR Moose conductor. Size = Al.54+St.7/3.53mm
1. Resistance of individual wire at 20°C = Resistivity at 20°C / cross sectional area of individual wire
= 28.264 / (3.53 xπ/4)
2

= 2.889 Ώ/Km
2. Resistance in parallel combination
1/R20 = 1/R1 + 1/R2 +1/R3+…………..1/Rn
1/R20 = 1/2.889 + 1/2.889 + 1/2.889 + ………+ 1/2.889 54
1/R20 =54 / 2.889
1/R20 =18.6915
Therefor e R20 =1/18.6915
=0.05350
3. Increment due to stranding (Stranding constant) = 2.33%
4. Resistance of conductor = Resistance in parallel combination x 1.0233
= 0.05350 x 1.0233 = 0.05474 Ώ/Km

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 AC Resistance of conductor
 The resistance of conductors varies not only with temperature but also with frequency , due to skin
effect. For any given frequency the following formula should be used to calculate the AC
Resistance of conductor.

Rac = K · Rdc (Tc) ohms / Km ---------------------------------------------------(1)

K1 = 0.99609 + 0.018578 X - 0.030263 X² + 0.020735 X 3

X = 0.01 · (D+2d) / (D+d) · SQRT((8 · π · f · (D-d) / (D+d) / RdC (TC)))

K2 =0.99947+0.028895y-0.0059348y²+0.00042259y 3
y = I/A
Where, Rac = AC resistance at the desired frequency
Rdc = DC resistance at any known temperature
K = K1 * K2 (DC to AC Conversion factor)
f = frequency
D = Conductor Diameter
d = Core Diameter

K1 = Skin Effect Coefficient (Skin Effect is always present in a conductor carrying alternating current).
This is from the alternating magnetic field set up by the conductor’s alternating current. The field
interacts with the current flow to cause more flow at the periphery of the conductor. This results in
non-uniform current density and therefore more losses and higher effective resistance. The
increase in resistance from this influence depends only on frequency and conductor material.

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 AC Resistance of conductor

K2 = core magnetization losses (The current in the aluminum strands tends to follow the helical
path of the strands in each layer. If the number of such layers is even, then the axial
magnetic field produced by one layer tends to be canceled by the next. If, however, the
number of aluminum strand layers is odd, this cancellation does not take place and the
resulting net helical current flow tends to produce an axial magnetic field that yields
magnetically-induced losses in the steel core wire. These "core magnetization losses" in the
steel core increase the effective conductor resistance per unit length.)

It is pertinent to note that the AC resistance of the conductor is frequency dependent.

 The resistance of the conductor is instrumental in working out the Current capacity of the
transmission line which we shall see in the next slides.

Click here for Skin effect table and AC Resistance calculation.

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 Rated Strength of conductor

The rated strength (Breaking Load) of a homogeneous aluminium conductor s

1. Shall be taken as the sum of the minimum tensile strength of all wires as defined in
standards. (Ex. IEC, EN)

2. Shall be taken as the percent, indicated in specifications, of the sum of the strengths of the
wires, calculated using the nominal wire diameters and the specified minimum average
tensile strength given in Specification. (Ex. ASTM, IS, BS, AS)

The rated strength (Breaking Load) of a composite Ax/Syz conductors

3. Shall be the sum of the tensile strength of the aluminium portion plus the strength of steel
corresponding to stress at 1% elongation. (Ex. IEC, EN, BS)

4. Shall be taken as the percent, indicated in specifications, of the sum of the strengths of the
component wires, calculated using the nominal wire diameters and the specified minimum
average tensile strength given in Specification. (Ex. ASTM, IS, AS)

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 Current Carrying Capacity
The current carrying capacity (Ampacity) of a bare, overhead transmission line conductor is the flow of current
(amps) which the conductor may allow to flow in it continuously while maintaining a steady maximum permissible
temperature over its surface.

The maximum permissible temperature is the surface temperature of the conductor which does not permanently
and adversely affect the physical properties of the conductor material.

For current carrying capacity of a conductor, it is necessary to understand the concept that under a state of
thermal equilibrium, the total heat gained by the conductor due to energy loss within itself and by solar and sky
radiation equals the total heat lost by the conductor by conduction to the metallic supporting it(clamps,
connectors, armour rods, vibration / spacer dampers, insulators etc.) by convection to the air surrounding it and
by radiation to its surrounding objects (towers, building etc.).

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE STEADY STATE

1. Conductor Material and its physical properties

 Material of conductor
 Construction of conductor
 Size of conductor
 Resistance of conductor
 Surface condition of conductor.
2. Geographical conditions
 Location
 Position
3. Meteorological conditions
 Wind Speed
 Ambient temperature
Click here for procedure of Current capacity calculation as per IEC 1597.

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 Short circuit Withstandibility

 A short circuit is an abnormal low-resistance connection between two nodes of an electrical

circuit that are meant to be at different voltages. This results in an excessive electric
current (over current).

 With low resistance in the connection, a high current exists, causing to deliver a large

amount of energy in a short time.

 When a line (Transmission and / or Distribution) short circuit, very large currents can flow
for a short time or up until a fuse, breaker or any isolation breaks the circuit.

 From the substation to the fault location, all conductors in the fault current path must
withstand the heat generated by the short circuit current. If the relaying of fuse does not
clear the fault in time, the conductor anneals and loses strength.

 During high currents from faults, conductor can withstand significant temperatures for few
seconds without losing strength called as short circuit with-standibility of conductor.

Click here for calculation of Short circuit Withstandibility

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 Modulus of Elasticity

Modulus of elasticity of conductor, is the mathematical description of a conductor’s tendency

to be deformed elastically (i.e., non-permanently) when a force is applied to it.

The elastic modulus of an object is defined as the slope of its stress–strain curve in the elastic
deformation region:

The final modulus of a conductor is dependent on a number of factors including the conductor's
previous thermal and tensile history, the method of stranding and the actual conductor
configuration. Theoretical values of the modulus can however be calculated from knowledge of
the component material properties and assuming a specific conductor construction.

The modulus of elasticity of a conductor can be worked out as per the procedure of EPRI
Technical paper as under.

Where , EAL = modulus of elasticity of aluminium

EST = modulus of elasticity of steel
EAS = modulus of elasticity of aluminium-steel composite
AAL = area of aluminium strands, mm2
AST = area of steel strands, mm2
ATOTAL = total cross-sectional area, square units, mm2
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 Co-efficient of linear expansion

Coefficient of linear expansion or Thermal expansion Thermal expansion is the tendency of

matter to change in volume in response to a change in temperature.

When a substance is heated, its particles begin moving more and thus usually maintain a greater
average separation.

The degree of expansion divided by the change in temperature is called the

material's coefficient of thermal expansion and generally varies with temperature.

Coefficient of linear expansion of a conductor can be worked out as per the procedure of EPRI
Technical paper as under.

Where , EAL = modulus of elasticity of aluminium

EST = modulus of elasticity of steel
EAS = modulus of elasticity of aluminium-steel composite
AAL = area of aluminium strands, mm2
AST = area of steel strands, mm2
ATOTAL = total cross-sectional area, square units, mm 2
αAL = aluminium coefficient of linear thermal expansion, per °C
αST = steel coefficient of thermal elongation, per °C
αAS = composite aluminium-steel coefficient of thermal elongation, per °C
Click here for calculation of Modulus & Coefficient of linear expansion of conductor.
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 SAG & TENSION
The design of transmission line tower structures depend upon sag and tension calculations of
the conductor & the earth wire. The most stringent condition for tower structure design are as
follows:
 
a) Maximum Sag:
b) Maximum Tension:

For the purpose of preparing Sag tension charts it is necessary to know the equivalent span
between two tension locations. The equivalent span can be worked out by the formula:

LEQ = √ [( L13 + L23 + L33 + ……. + Ln3 ) / ( L1 + L2 + L3 + ……. + Ln )]

Where L1, L2, L3………Ln­­ are individual spans of towers between two tension towers.
LEQ is equivalent span between two tension towers

Click here for SAG TENSION CALCULATION

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 SAG & TENSION

For the purpose of line design, SAG of the conductor is calculated for all types of probable
climatic conditions.

IS 802 (1995) has specified the guidelines to consider the sag as per below conditions for
all line design in INDIA.
 Every day temperature (32ºC) and No wind pressure with F.O.S = 4.0 or more than
4.0.
 Sag at any temperature and wind pressure
 Sag at worst condition ( At maximum temperature & No wind)
( At minimum temperature & full wind)

Every day temperature and No wind condition is called as Starting condition of sag tension
calculations.
F.O.S means Factor of Safety
F.O.S = 4.0 means, Tensions at 32ºC & No wind condition shall not exceed 25% of UTS.

F.O.S is considered as 4.0 for conductors above 400KV and 4.5 for conductors below
400KV for normal run of the line.

It is pertinent to note that the factor of safety on conductor for river crossing span is
generally high and taken as 5.0 or 5.5 at starting condition.

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 LINE CLEARANCE REGULATION

The minimum clearances shall be in accordance with Indian Electricity Rules, 1956
and are given below

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 Stress Strain Characteristic

Stress Strain characteristic of conductor at various loading cycles are

known to derive Modulus of Elasticity of conductor.

The Stress Strain Characteristic is measured in laboratory tests at

controlled conditions and a graph showing the extensions produced in a
material with increasing and decreasing stress.

The test provides behaviors of conductor at various loads. Stress strain curves are
plotted with a smooth line through various points at various tension loadings. The
stress strain curve provides the modulus of elasticity of conductor as well as the
core of conductor which is further used in SAG TENSION Calculation of
conductor.

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 Stress Strain Characteristic
90

80 Load
f(x) = 2.1879 x − 26.999
Hold
70
Unload
60
f(x) = 2.17320000000001 x − 14.7240000000001
Force [kN]

50

40
f(x) = 2.0839 x − 5.82890000000002
30

20

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Elongation [mm]

62
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 CREEP OF CONDUCTOR

All conductors, begin to creep during run out, through stringing, final sagging
and lastly throughout the life of the conductor, only stopping when the
conductor is let down at the end of its life .
When a new conductor is strung out and a tensile load (tension) applied it
immediately creeps initially at a high rate for a number of hours (called Primary
creep), followed by a period in which the creep rate slows until it attains a
"constant" creep rate ( known as Secondary creep).

Creep of the conductor is the result of the re-adjustment of the conductor over
a span of period. The factors which affect the creep are innumerable. For
ACSR Conductor, the proportion of steel in the total conductor plays an
important role. Another factor is the every day temperature & next is the time in
hours.
The percentage tension with respect to the UTS of the conductor at everyday
temperature (termed as every day tension) is also important factor for the
development of creep.

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STRESS STRAIN & CREEP CURVES

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 VIBRATIONS IN OVERHEAD
CONDUCTORS

o The transmission line conductors are continuously exposed to the wind

and the weather conditions prevailing in their route and hence are
subjected to periodic or sometimes to randomly distributed loads.

o As the conductors basically interrupt the horizontal wind forces, their

leeward sides experience vortices with varied frequencies .

o The differential pressure thus created results in the vertical lifting of the
conductors.

o Depending on the frequencies shed at the leeward side, the conductors

experience vertical oscillations and their levels being high when coincide
with the natural frequencies of the conductors.

o Since this action results in alternate bending of the conductors, the

constituent helical wires experience bending strains.

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 VIBRATIONS IN OVERHEAD
CONDUCTORS

o When the strain levels exceed the permitted values, the conductors fail to
give a safe performance, as the wires try to snap or cut, due to the
repeated oscillations.

o The failures set in much earlier due to the material properties deteriorating
drastically due to the resulting fatigue phenomenon.

o The locations where the conductors are restrained, like the suspension
clamp ends, are most vulnerable for such failures, due to the increased
strain levels experienced.

o Wind-induced vibration of overhead conductors is common worldwide and

can cause conductor fatigue near a hardware attachment and hence need
to be studied in depth.

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 VIBRATIONS IN OVERHEAD
CONDUCTORS

o Wind can generate two major modes of oscillation in suspended

conductors:

o Aeolian vibration, prevailing mostly in single conductors under a laminar

wind front and has an amplitude of few millimeters to centimeters and a
frequency of 3 to 150 Hz.

o Galloping vibration ,existing in single conductors exposed to heavy ice

loading conditions and has an amplitude measured in meters and a
frequency range of 0.08 to 3 Hz.

o Wake-induced vibration or sub-span oscillation prevailing in bundle

conductor arrangements and has an amplitude of centimeters and a
frequency of 0.15 to 10 Hz.

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 AEOLIAN OR VERTICAL
VIBRATIONS
o This is the most common type of vibration that results due to vortex
shedding under laminar flow of wind.

o These are low amplitude medium frequency (3 - 60 Hz for wind speeds of

1-8 m/s ).

o Sometimes, additional sinusoidal waves of different frequencies arise on

the line, corresponding to a higher mode of vibrations .

o These vibrations are in the vertical plane and exert continuous alternating
bending stresses on the conductor strands and eventually may lead
fatigue failure of the conductor.

o The frequency at which the vortices alternate from the top to bottom
surfaces of conductors can be closely approximated by the following
relationship that is based on the Strouhal Number,

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 AEOLIAN OR VERTICAL
VIBRATIONS
o The frequency at which the vortices alternate from the top to bottom
surfaces of conductors can be closely approximated by the following
relationship that is based on the Strouhal Number,

Vortex Frequency (Hertz) = 0.185 V / D, where

“V” is the wind velocity component normal to the conductor in m/s.

“D” is the conductor diameter in metres, and
“0.185” is an empirical aerodynamic constant.

Hence the smaller the conductor, the higher the frequency ranges of vibration
of the conductor.

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 AEOLIAN OR VERTICAL
VIBRATIONS
o The existence of Aeolian vibration on a transmission or distribution line
doesn't necessarily constitute a problem. However, if the magnitude of the
vibration is high enough, damage in the form of abrasion or fatigue failures
will generally occur over a period of time.

o Abrasion is the wearing away of the surface of a conductor and is

generally associated with loose connections between the conductor and
attachment hardware or other conductor fittings .

o Fatigue failures are the direct result of bending a material back and forth a
sufficient amount over a sufficient number of cycles.

o When the bending stresses in a conductor due to Aeolian vibration exceed

the endurance limit, fatigue failures will occur.

o In a conductor, the bending stress is zero at the center and increases to

the maximum at the outer surface.

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 GALLOPING VIBRATIONS
o It is also termed as Long wave vibrations and is characterized by low
frequencies of 0.1 to I Hz.
o This phenomenon is most common when there is a sleet covering of the
conductor.
o Ice coating creates irregular edges and surfaces, which disturb the airflow,
which breaks away at these points to induce a certain self-excitation.
o When wind pushes on those icicles and conductors, this causes uplift on
the iced-up conductor and a consequent galloping, or jumping, motion
occurs.
o Power lines can sway in high winds, but it's the combination of wind and
ice that causes them to gallop more forcefully.
o 6mm of ice and a steady wind of at least 30 km/h perpendicular to the
transmission line are ideal conditions to create galloping.
o Conditions that are conducive for galloping are - Low pressure area with
High winds, temperature between 0 and -5 ·C.

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 SELF DAMPING OF CONDUCTOR

o When a conductor flexes, the strands of the conductor slip against each
other; this relative motion generates frictional forces that provide damping.

o In addition, internal losses are incurred at the microscopic level within the
core and individual strands of the conductor; this is known as metallurgical
or material damping.

o The combination of these dissipative effects is referred to as conductor

self-damping.” Conductor self-damping can be a major source of energy
dissipation during Aeolian vibration.

o As conductor tension increases, the strands tend to lock and slippage is

reduced. As a result, conductor self-damping decreases and the severity
of Aeolian vibration increases, thereby raising the potential for fatigue
damage. It is for this reason that the tension of an undamped conductor is
kept relatively low.

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 Table of content
1 Overview on Overhead Conductors

2 Basic material characteristics & Reference Standards

3 Manufacturing Processes

4 Factors for conductor designing

5 Conductor Design Parameters

6 Overview on HTLS Conductors

7 Conductor testing and evaluation

8 Packing, storage and handling

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 OVERVIEW OF HTLS CONDUCTORS

 Overhead lines are usually made of aluminum conductors.

 Mechanical Properties of conductors are improved by using High Strength

material like steel or aluminum alloy as reinforcement.

 The area ratio of aluminum and steel is usually between 3:1 to 14:1 depending
on the mechanical requirements.

 The different mechanical and thermal properties of steel and aluminum lead to
a variable force distribution within the conductor which are the controlling
factors for Sag and thermal loading limits of conductors.

 Satisfaction of constantly increasing industrial and domestic demand of electric

energy encounters pushing higher current through the existing conductors.

 Increasing the operating temperature and violating the designed thermal

loading limits of the transmission lines.

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 Thermo-mechanical Behavior of
overhead Line Conductor

 The integrity of conductors is affected due to

temperature increased by pushing of higher current.

 Aluminum begins to anneal and start loosing its

strength at a conductor operating temperature of
about 100°C.

 As conductor temperature goes up, the conductor

expands and the line sag increases.

 This sag can cause the conductor to drop below safe

levels allowing the conductor to short circuit to an
adjacent structure, or even fall to the ground.

 The Figure of Aluminum Electrical Conductors

Handbook indicates that an aluminum conductor
may lose 5% of its strength after 500 hours at 100°C
or 2 hours at 150°C. Aluminum melts at about
650°C.

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 Why Conductor is Heated…

There are two main effects that add heat to the conductor.

1. The largest source of heating for conductors is I²R where “I” is the line
current and “R” is the resistance per unit length of the conductor.
More current causes more heating and higher temperatures cause
increased resistance.

AND

2. The other effect that contributes to higher conductor temperatures is solar

heating.
Solar heating is a function of transmission line orientation, time of year,
time of day, latitude of the service area, and clarity of the atmosphere.

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Transmission capacity upgrading by Thermal up rating.

 Today, most overhead transmission lines use ACSR conductor construction. Steel
can withstand high temperatures up to 200°C with no changes in the
conductors properties, aluminum on the other hand starts losing its mechanical
properties when the temperatures is higher than 90°C.

 The temperature is a function of the electrical current and the environmental

conditions.

 On a continuous basis, ACSR may be operated at temperatures up to 100ºC and,

for limited time emergencies, at temperatures high as 125°C without any
significant change in the physical properties.

 Many changes in the way the power transmission system is being planned and
operated, hence there is a need to reach higher current densities in existing
transmission lines, to increase the thermal rating of existing lines.

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WAYS OF INCREASING THERMAL RATING OF LINE

 Increasing the maximum allowable operating temperature to 100°C. If the

line is limited to a modest temperature of 50°C to 75°C and the electrical
clearance is sufficient to allow an increase in sag for operation at a higher
temperature.

 Replace the conductor with a larger one having higher aluminum area
than the existing conductor to increase the thermal rating by more than
5%~10% and the existing structures are capable of handling the increased
load because of an increase of aluminum and higher tension.

 Thermal rating of the line can further be increased about 50% by using a
replacement conductor that has much higher aluminum twice the area of the
original conductor. The larger conductor doubles the original structure
tension loads and increases transverse wind/ice conductor loads and would
require structure reinforcement or replacement.

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 WHY High Temperature Low Sag Conductors?

 HTLS Conductors with equivalent diameter and weight as the original

conductor can improve the current capacity of line upto 250% by
operating at 180°C.

 Loads on structures and ground clearances at par with the existing

conductor operated at 75°C.

 The line rating can be further increased upto 280% ~ 300% by

operating upto 230°C.

 Operation at 210°C will require the structures to support slightly higher

tensions or the structures will have to be raised by providing extensions
in order to maintain the sag and ground clearance as that of the existing
conductor operating at 75°C.

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 Operating Principles of HTLS Conductors
 Increase the capacity (Ampacity) of the line with respect to its equivalent conductor, based on
the increment of the working temperature, maintaining the electrical clearances due to low
thermal expansion.

 Specially treated Aluminum / Aluminum Alloy to preserve their mechanical characteristics or

are not subject to a considerable decay even when exposed to high operational temperatures for
very long period.

 Low thermal expansion is achieved by selecting the core material having low co-efficient of
linear expansion than steel wires.
 
 At normal operating temperature, the tension on conductor remains distributed on both
aluminum and core and as the temperature increases the aluminum strands of a composite
conductor starts loosing the tension and at a point have no tension or go into compression and
all the tension on conductor gets transferred on the core which is caused by difference in values
of co-efficient of linear expansion of different material when heated.

 The point at which all the tension on conductor is taken by the core of conductor is called as
knee point (Transition) temperature.

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 IMPROVED ANNEALING CHARACTERISTIC
TAL wire containing Zr element has improved annealing resistance properties without loss of strength at high
operating temperature
Annealing Characteristics for Al & Alloy Comparison with other conductors
Wires
ALLOY
HAL AL-59 TAL STAL
110 6201
Density
2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7
100 (g/cm3)
Conductivity
61 52.3 59 60 60
Residual strength, %

(%IACS)
90
Tensile Strength 16.2 30.2 24.5 16.2 16.2
(kgf/mm2) ~17.9 ~33.1 ~26.5 ~17.9 ~17.9
80

Temp. (oC)
Allowable
Continuous 75 95 95 150 210
70 AL-59
HAL Emergency 85 105 105 180 240
60
TAL Ampacity x 1.0 x 1.2 x 1.3 x 1.7 x 2.5
Alloy STAL
50 TACSR
0 100 200 300 400 500 Applicable AAAC AL-59 GZTACSR
ACSR TACIR
o Conductor AACSR AL-57 STACIR
Aging temperature, CX1hr TACSR/AW

*HAL : Hard-drawn Aluminum, *TAL : Thermal Resistant Aluminum-Alloy, *STAL : Super Thermal Resistant Aluminum-Alloy

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 Types of HTLS Conductors
Using Aluminium / Aluminium alloys which can preserve their mechanical
characteristics and Reinforcement core with high elastic modulus, a high ratio of
tensile strength to weight, the retention of tensile strength at high temperatures, a
low plastic and thermal elongation, The following choices of proven HTLS
conductors are available

 ACSS/TW (TRAPEZOIDAL SHAPED ALUMUNIUM CONDUCTOR STEEL

SUPPORTED)

 STACIR (SUPER THERMAL ALUMUNIUM CONDUCTOR INVAR REINFORCED)

 GZTACSR (GAP TYPE SUPER THERMAL ALUMUNIUM CONDUCTOR STEEL

REINFORCED)

 ACCC (ALUMUNIUM CONDUCTOR COMPOSITE CORE)

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 ACSS/TW – Trapezoidal shaped Wire Aluminum
Conductor Steel Supported.

 The conductor comprises of an

inner core of Galfan (Zn 5%-Al Zinc–5 % Aluminum-

Mischmetal) coated steel wire / Mischmetal Alloy-

Coated Steel Core or
Aluminum Clad Steel
Aluminum cladded steel wires core.

and concentrically arranged

annealed aluminum 1350 wires Annealed
Aluminum

of trapezoidal shape forming the

outer layers of the conductor

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 ACSS/TW – Trapezoidal shaped Wire Aluminum
Conductor Steel Supported.
 Can be operated at 200°C without loss of strength

 Steel core (High strength) carries most of the load and hence
less sag compared to conventional ACSR conductor under high
temperature
Zinc–5 % Aluminum-
 Improved Conductivity (63% IACS), Mischmetal Alloy-
Coated Steel Core or
 When stressed, the complete conductor aluminum elongates Aluminum Clad Steel
core.
and transfers all the load to steel core

 Lower compressive forces between annealed Aluminum and

Steel Core enables higher self damping capacity because of this Annealed
increased elongation in annealed Aluminum Aluminum

 Used extensively in some countries (US etc.).

 Require proper techniques & strict quality control during

annealing/stranding

 Require special care during handling & suitable tools & tackles
recommended during stringing.

 Due to softer aluminum strands, more prone to surface

abrasion, bird caging etc. if proper care not undertaken.

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 STACIR – Super Thermal Aluminium Conductor
Invar Reinforced

Construction of STACIR Aluminum Clad Invar

core wires
Conductor is similar to ACSR with
round wires. The conductor is
composed of Aluminum strands
of thermal resistant aluminum Super Thermal
Resistant Aluminum
alloy (with Zirconium) and Core Alloy wires
(Type-AT 3)
made of alloy of Iron (36%Ni in
steel) –Nickel having low thermal
coefficient of expansion 1/3rd
that of Galvanized or Aluminum
Clad steel core wires.

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 STACIR – Super Thermal Aluminium Conductor
Invar Reinforced

 Can be operated up to 210-240°C Aluminum Clad Invar

core wires
 Zirconium content in aluminum
wires improves the annealing
characteristics.
 After transition (Knee point) Super Thermal
Resistant Aluminum
temperature all load transferred to Alloy wires
(Type-AT 3)
the core and hence lower sag
compared to ACSR after transition
temperature.
 Can be operated up to 210-240°C.
 Handling & stringing similar to
conventional ACSR

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 GZTACSR – GAP Type Super Thermal Resistant
Aluminum Alloy Conductor Steel Reinforced.

Gap conductors consist of layers

of trapezoidal shaped, temperature
resistant aluminum zirconium wires
around a high strength steel core.
To allow the aluminum wires to
move freely over the core the outer
diameter of the core is smaller than
the inner diameter of the innermost
layer of AlZr wires. This “gap”
becomes an essential part of the
conductor and is giving the
conductor its special characteristics.

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 GZTACSR – GAP Type Super Thermal Resistant
Aluminum Alloy Conductor Steel Reinforced.

 Can be operated at temperatures up to 210°C.

 Zirconium content in aluminum wires improves the annealing

characteristics.

 Small gap maintained between steel and Aluminum layer.

 GAP is filled with thermal resistant grease allowing the core and
the conducting strands to move independently from each other
without friction Conductor strung by tensioning the steel core
and the conducting wires are wound around to exhibit lesser sag
compared to ACSR.

 Knee Point occurs at the stringing temperature, hence the low sag
properties of conductor are achieved beyond the stringing
temperature.

 Used in some countries (Japan, Korea, UK etc.) for up-rating

applications.

 Require special erection techniques during stringing.

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 ACCC– Aluminium Conductor Composite Core.

Aluminum conductor composite core is a

concentrically stranded conductor with one or
more layers of trapezoidal shaped hard drawn
Glass fiber &
and annealed 1350-0 aluminum wires on a carbon fiber
central core of light weight Carbon-Glass fiber core
composite.

The Conductor uses a carbon fiber core that Trapezoidal

shaped
is 25% stronger and 60% lighter than a Annealed
traditional steel core. This along with Aluminum
trapezoidal shaped aluminum strands help to
increases the aluminum content in Aluminum
conductor composite core by over 28% without
increasing the conductor's overall diameter or
weight.

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 ACCC– Aluminium Conductor Composite Core.

 Less sag due to lower coefficient of thermal

expansion.

Glass fiber &

 Can be operated up to 180°C carbon fiber
core
 Composite core as strength member used for
up- rating applications (in USA, Europe,
China)recently. Trapezoidal
shaped
Annealed
 Careful handling & suitable tools & tackles Aluminum
recommended during stringing due to
annealed aluminum layers & composite core.

 Require special dead-end clamps and joints

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 Table of content
1 Overview on Overhead Conductors

2 Basic material characteristics & Reference Standards

3 Manufacturing Processes

4 Factors for conductor designing

5 Conductor Design Parameters

6 Overview on HTLS Conductors

7 Conductor testing and evaluation

8 Packing, storage and handling

Conductor testing & evaluation is covered in separate slide……

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 Table of content
1 Overview on Overhead Conductors

2 Basic material characteristics & Reference Standards

3 Manufacturing Processes

4 Factors for conductor designing

5 Conductor Design Parameters

6 Overview on HTLS Conductors

7 Conductor testing and evaluation

8 Packing, storage and handling

Conductor Packing, Storage & handling is covered in separate slide……

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