MARINE ELECTRONICS

BY

DR. NSIKAN O. JAMES

INTRODUCTION

Marine electronic can be defined as any device that requires

electrical power (either AC or DC) in order to perform the task
for which it was built for example computer system, handset,
radio set, TV set. Sensor, calculator and camera. Electronics are
material that run on electricity or batteries to generate an
electric current or electricity. Electronics plays a vital role in
maritime engineering, navigation and maritime security. Hence
marine electronics refers to electronics device designed and
classed for use in the marine environments where even small
drops of salt water will destroy electronic devices, therefore
majority of these types of devices are either water resistance or
water proof. Another characteristics of some electronic
materials is the non linear behavior of active components and
their ability to control electron flows make amplification of weak
signal possible.
Rationale Behind the Study of Marine Electronics
The rationale are as follows:

 The study of marine electronics will help to expose to the

learner some electronic principles needed on board ship,
boat, yacht for safe transportation and easy navigation.
 The study provides basic skills and technological know-how
in maritime engineering.
 Its provide fundamental knowledge in maritime Transport
and communication.
 It generates basic knowledge in maritime security.
 Marine electronics help in predicting the future through
radar (weather forecast).
 Its interpret the position of vessels through global
positioning system (GPS).
 The study provides a platform for rescue operations through
the use of Global Maritime Distress and Safety System
(GMDSS) during distress.
Role of Electronics in Maritime Economy
 Use of electronic in Voyage: The use of electronics
nowadays in Navigation of ships cannot be over emphasized.
Since the introduction of the Global maritime ship position
electronic equipment in navigation, there has been a great
relief to the desk officers. Now with Global maritime position
electronic equipment plotting of chart and determination of
course are no longer in use manually, it only require the
officer of the watch, (OOW) put the date of the voyage that
the vessel will embark on into this electronic equipment and
then the vessel will be steered under the Automatic pilot. This
role of electronic equipment saves time and energy and it also
ensures accuracy.
 Automatic Alarm system: The use of automatic alarm
system installation on board ship has been of great important
in maritime industry. Electronic panel helps to dictate fault this
is done by showing time and the location of the fault in the
panel. This helps the engineers and technicians to repair the
fault before embarking on voyage.
 Use in Container Cargo Tracking: In ports today the use of
electronic devices in tracking of containers and cargo has been
very helpful and time and energy saving.
 Weather Forecast:- Electronic devices like Radar and monitor
are use to know the weather condition of the day and also during
the period of voyage.
 Navigation:- The invention of GPS and GMDSS system has made
navigation easy and safe for seafarers to know their position and
determine which course they should alter to.
 Tracking System: The invention of tracking system has reduce
the cost of hiring an helicopter for a search and rescue.
 Billing and Invoice System: The introduction of electronic
devices in billing and invoice system made logistics activities faster
and reliable.
 Security Gadget System: Security gadget at port for scanning
of cargo as well as checking trafficking.
 Cargo handling: In modern ports electronic robots now handling
cargoes.
 Echo Sounder: Echo sounder is an electronic device employed to
indicate the draft at which the vessel is navigating for instance the
draft of the sea indicate the depth which is displayed on electronic.
 Ship Automation: The use of electronics on ships have resulted
in the automation of the various systems in the ship’s control. In
ship steering gear, when the wheel is turned from the bridge and
the rudder is turned to a desired direction, through set of
process controlled by electronics the rudder will automatically
return to the former position after the ship has turned in the
desired angle.
 Radio Communication:- Application of radio waves in
transmitting information and signals from ship to ship.
 Smoke Detector:- This is an electronic device use to detect
smoke from sparking wire from an unknown area and raises
alarm to alerts crew members.
 Electronic Radar:- This help in notifying distance object and
incoming ship to avoid collision.
 Electronic banking: E-banking helps in facilitating transactions
through money transfer, Automated Teller Machine (ATM)
through Visa card Verd and Master card. It also helps in import
and export trade through import and export bank.
 Health Epidermis Control: Electronic scanning machines are
used in major port terminals to detect goods and persons at
shore, offshore and even on board ship. The introduction of
body temperature detection camera helps in identifying Ebola
early symptoms, coronal virus and other dangerous diseases.
 Bunkering, Militancy and Piracy: Activities of marine
bunkering, ship hijacking and piracy at sea could be reduced
through marine satellite, closed circuit television (CCTV) Global
Positioning System (GPS). These electronic gadgets are used to
monitor vessels at sea thereby helps to combat the activities of
marine pirates.
 Marine Transportation: Electronics helps in marine
transportations particularly in cargo and freight forwarding,
loading and uploading through electronic robots and scanners
which facilitates distributions of goods and services.
 Maritime Education: Electronic education through E-learning,
E-library, online Maritime education, Networking, Internet
services, Electronic disc and CD- Rom. All these help to provide
useful Marine information to seafarers, merchants, naval
personnel and shipping firms.
 Fault Detection on Board Panel: Any fault in terms of
mechanical, Electrical/Electronic will be shown on board panel.
This helps to prevent and reduce accident at sea.
 Communication at Sea: Electronics development allows for
free access of information and communication through the use of
marine radio VHF, i-pad, i-phone, cell phone, computers, IMASAT
Satellite, GPS, and GMDSS .
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
An atom is the smallest particle of an element. The atom is made up
of a nucleus which has the proton, electron and neutron. The proton
is positively charge, electron is negatively charge and neutron has
no charge. Nucleus of an atom

e-
e

Neutron
+P N

e Orbital shell

e-
e - R3
Proton
Proton and neutron are in the nucleus of an atom while electron
evolve around the orbital shell.
Atomic theory made us to understand that in an atom of an element
electron move or rotates around the orbital shell to form what is
called free electron. These free elections are useful in electrical and
electronic devices and equipment. For instance a conductor allows
electrons to move freely, some of these electrons are not strongly
attached to the nuclear orbit. If such a conductor is heated the heat
will increase the speed of the electrons moving around the nuclear
orbit. This rapid movement will give the electrons enough force that
will enable them escape from the orbital influence of the nucleus.
When the electrons are able to leave their orbits, they move away
from the surface of the conductor material. These free electrons
made it possible for the current to move in valves and transistors
which are useful components of T.V and radio circuits. The aerials or
television antenna which are used in our homes to received both
vision and speech signals into our radios and television sets make
use of free electrons.
ELECTRIC CURRENT/ATTRACTIVE FORCE
There exist powerful forces of attraction between the nucleus of an atom
and its electrons. The force which tends to draw the electron towards it is
called the attractive force. However, electron in the outer shell of an atom
are less powerfully attracted to their nucleus than those whose orbits are
nearer to the central nucleus. These outer shell electrons which are
weakly, bound to their nucleus can therefore easily be forced away from
it altogether, and left to wander among other atoms randomly, such
electrons are called free electrons and it is the movement of these
electrons which makes an electric current, thus: electric current –is the
movement or drifting of free electrons.
 CONDUCTORS: Contain many free electrons in their central orbit
that is they have many free electrons which are changed to carry
electric current example are silver, copper and aluminum.
 INSULATORS: Are those materials that have few free electrons
which make it impossible to carry electric current. Examples are
woods, air and rubber.
 SEMI-CONDUCTORS: Are materials that have an average
number of free electrons which may make them carry some electric
current or none that is, they are neither pure conductors nor pure
insulators. This shows that the more the number of free electrons in
a material the more it will conduct electric current.
Why electrons are tightly bound to the Surface of the metal
electrode
The Reason why some electrons tightly bound to the surface of the
metal electrode is as a result of binding energy .
BINDING ENERGY: This are energy that keep electrons tightly
bound to the surface of the metal electrode that means free
electrons cannot be removed from the metal electrode at room
temperature.
THEORY OF MATTER:
Matter is anything that has weight and occupies a space. Again its can
be defined as anything which occupies space or has mass.
Matter can exist in three physical state as a solid, liquid and gas.
(a) Solid: A solid has a definite shape and definite volume. Example
of solid are: stone, sugar cubes and iron.
(b) Liquid: Is a state of matter which has a definite volume but has
no definite shape but it takes the shape of its containing vessel.
Example water (H2O) and fuel.
(c) Gas: Has neither definite volume nor shape, it fills the entire
container. Example oxygen (O2) carbon iv oxide (CO2) and
hydrogen (Hs) All matter can change from one state to another for
example water undergoing a change of state.
 heat heat
o
0C 100oC
ice water Steam
cool cool

Generally, a given substance change its state when it is heated or

cooled. Example candle wax and Margarine liquefy on warming and
solidify on cooling. Solid iron is melted into liquid at 1540 oC poured
into a mould and when cooled, it solidifies taking the shape of the
mould.
THYRISTOR: Is a family of semi conductor devices that includes
the silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) and triac. It is a p-n-p-n semi-
conductor switching device with a bi-stable action which depend for
it operation on internal re-generation feedback. (positive feedback).
It has three terminal, the anode, cathode and the gate. Thyristor
function as power diodes with an additional gate terminal that
controls the time when the device begins conducting, a thyristor
starts to conduct when a small gate current is injected into the gate
terminal, provided that the anode voltage is greater than the
cathode voltage.
Block Diagram of a Thyristors and Schematic Symbol
A node

N G2
Gate
P
G1
N

Cathode

A
Cathode

Gate

A node K

iA
A K
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF THYISTOR

T1

RL

G
T2

APPLICATIONS OF THYRISTOR
It is widely used as a switching device in power control applications. It
can control loads by switching current off and ON up to many thousand
times a second. It can switch on for variable lengths of time, there by
delivering selected amount of power to the load. Hence, it possesses
the advantages of a rheostat and a switch. It is also used in circuit as
well as motor controls, to control the speed of a motor.
SUMMARY OF THYRISTOR APPLICATIONS
(a) Static contactor – switching operations
(b) Motor speed control
(c) Power control
(d) Speed control of a series d.C motor

THERMISTORS
Thermistors are part of the resistance temperature detector family
(RTD). Characteristic of all RTDS is that they are passive devices,
unless excited by an external source. Again, thermistors are
thermally sensitive resistors whose resistance alters by a significant
change in temperature. There are two types, namely, those with a
negative resistance-temperature coefficient (n.t.c type) whose
resistance reduces with increasing temperature, and those with a
positive resistance-temperature coefficient (p.t.c. types) whose
resistance increases with increasing temperature (over a limited
temperature range only).
 Diagram and Construction of Thermistor
Thermistor

heater

T
Voltage
Supply

THERMISTOR SYMBOL
CHARACTERISTICS OF THERMISTORS
1. They are passive in nature unless excited by external source
2. They are thermally sensitive
3. Their resistance depend on temperature coefficient
 
APPLICATION OF THERMISTOR
It is used to offset the effect of temperature change in a circuit. It is
constructed so that as temperature increases, the resistance will
decrease. Thermistors are also used in transistor bias circuits to
provide compensation for the effects of temperature on the leakage
current of transistors. In such circuits the current flowing through
the thermistor must be small; otherwise it will cause the
temperature of the bulk of the thermistor to rise, resulting in a
further change in resistance. Positive resistance-temperature
coefficient (P.T.C) thermistors shows a sudden increase in resistance
over a relatively small temperature range, and are used in colour
T.V. tube demagnetization circuits and in electric motor overload
protection circuits.
 Used in temperature compensation of a transistor:
Thermistor is employed to offset temperature changes in a circuit.
This is done by trapping/absorbing excess heat in the system.
 Used in current regulation of a circuit: Thermistor regulates
current in the circuit by acting as a transformer so as to step up or
step down the current and also prevent in-rush current into the
circuit. It is used also used in refrigerator circuit as a thermostat.
 Used in diagnosing changes in body temperature: Thermistor
is used in hospital in checking patient temperature.
 Used to reduce the magnetic effect in circuits: When the
supply current let in to the circuit, and magnetic flux is produced
which is transformed around the circuit the thermistor traps off any
misplaced magnetic flux that may want to escape from the iron
core or Eddy current or hysteresis which will cause over heating in
the system. with the presence of thermistor, this heat is absorbed
and a stabilized voltage is achieved in the system.
In summary thermistors are principally applied and used as:
 In rush current limiters.
 Self- resetting over current protector.
 Self-regulating heating elements.
ELECTRONIC DIODE
Diode is the simplest device which is made by combing some
elements placed inside a vacuum tube or evaluated tube or
otherwise called electronic valve. A diode consist of two elements
called electrode. An electrode can be either an anode or a cathode.
The cathode is the emitter of electrons while the anode serves as
the collector of the electrons
DIAGRAMS OF DIODE
Cathode

Heater

Anode

Direction
of current

A
Ammeter
Battery

(Current flow from cathode to anode in a vacuum tube)

HOW DIODE WORKS
The working of a diode depends on the principle that like charge repel
each other while unlike charges attract each other. When the cathode
in the diode is heated, it emits electrons. These electrons are
negatively charged and are attracted or repelled from the anode. If the
anode is positively charged, it attracts the charges. But if it is
negatively charged, the charge will be repelled. In other word diode
valve is made up of two elements. Cathode and Anode; cathode
serving as an electron emitter while anode plate acting as an electron
collector. Positive charge is connected to Anode and negative charge to
the cathode here electric field will be established between cathode and
anode. Electrons flows only from the cathode to the anode in a diode
and not from the anode to the cathode hence electron flow in a diode
is unidirectional. This means that, in a diode, electrons can only flow
in one direction. It is this unidirectional characteristic of diodes which
makes them very useful in electronics.
 USES OF DIODE
- Diodes are used as electronic switches
- Diodes are used as rectifiers (for changing alternating current into
direct current).
 TRIODE
A triode is a vacuum tube with three elements. It resembles the
diodes, the only difference being the presence of a third electrode,
usually called the grid between the anode and the cathode.

The control grid control the flow of electrons from the cathode to the
anode.
USES OF TRIODES
Triodes are used as amplifiers. The development of triodes as amplifiers
led to technological advancement in radio, television broadcasting.
ELECTRON EMISSION
The liberation of electrons from the surface of a substance is known as
electron emission. In electron emission metals are used because they
have many free electrons. If a piece of metal is investigated at room
temperature the random motion of free electrons will be seen.
Surface
Free Electron

However, these electrons are free only to the extent that they may
transfer from one atom to another within the metal but they cannot
leave the metal surface to provide electron emission. In other words,
the metallic surface offers a barrier to free electrons and is known as
surface barrier. However, if sufficient external energy is given to the free
electron, its kinetic energy is increased and thus electron will cross over
the surface barrier of the metal is called WORK FUNCTION of the metal.
WORK FUNCTION: The amount of additional energy required to
liberate an electron from a metallic surface is known as work
function of that metal.
ELECTRON EMISSION: The liberation of electrons from the
surface of a substance is known as electron emission.
 TYPES OF EMISSION
(a) Thermionic Emission: Is a process of emitting electrons from
a surface of an electrode by heat energy supplied to it. It can
also be referred as a method by which electrons are liberated
that is made free by the use of heat directly or indirectly.
(b) Field Emission: Is the application of strong electric field at the
surface of a metal which pulls the free electrons out of metal
because of the attraction of positive field.
(c) Photo-Electric Emission: This is a method which employs
light energy through dissimilar materials to liberate electrons.
(d) Cold-Cathode Emission: This is a method in which electrons
are emitted by energy stored in electric fields or magnetic fields.
 (e) Secondary Emission: In this method free electrons are obtain
through kinetic energy. For instance, electric charges are made
to bombard the surface of the metal electrode.
TRANSISTOR
A transistor consist of two P-n junctions formed by sandwiching
either p-type or n-type semi conductor between a pair of opposite
type. n p n

There are two types of transistors

 n-p-n transistor p n p

 p-n-p transistor
Collector (-) Collector (+)

p n

n Base (-) p Base (+)

p n

Em itter (O-V) Emitter (O-V)

p-n-p transistor n-p-n transistor

BLOCK DIAGRAM AND SYMBOLS OF TRANSISTOR

C COLLECTOR C C COLLECTOR C

n p

p B BASE B n B Base B

n p

E EMITTER E E EMITTER

N-P-N P-N-P
TRANSISTOR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT Collector

Base D2

VCE

D1

Emitter

Static Characteristics of a Transistor

The three important characteristics of a transistor are:
(a) Input characteristic
(b) Output characteristic
(C) Constant-current transfer characteristic
TRANSISTOR BIASING
The proper flow of zero signal collector current and the maintenance of
proper collector-emitter voltage during the passage of signal is known as
transistor biasing. Biasing become necessary since it helps to bring about
faithful amplification, here the transistor amplifier must satisfy three
basic conditions namely (1) Proper zero signal collector current (2)
proper base –emitter voltage at any instant (3) Proper collector –emitter
voltage at any instant. It is the fulfillment of these conditions which is
known as transistor biasing.
The purpose of transistor biasing is to keep the base-emitter junction
properly forward biased and the collector-based junction properly
reverse biased during the application of signal.
METHODS OF TRANSISTOR BIASING
The followings are methods commonly used in transistor biasing
from one source of supply.
 Base resistor method
 Emitter bias method
 Biasing with collector-feedback resistor
 Voltage-divided bias

TEMPERATURE EFFECT ON A TRANSISTOR

In transistor any increase in temperature will cause the barrier
potential to fall and this in turn will reduce the width of the depletion
layer for a given gate-source Voltage. The Channel resistance will fall
and the drain current in opposite direction and as a result the overall
variation can be quite small. This means that the drain current
decreases with increase in temperature as well as increase in
minority carrier current.
Increase in temperature brings about thermal run away as well as
thermal agitation noise in electronic circuit. Beside this it also bring
about ripples and Hum sound in electrical and electronic circuits.
TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION ON A TRANSISTOR
The resistance of a pure metal increase with temperature but the
resistance of certain other conducting materials example carbon,
decreases with temperature. But a semi conducting known as
Thermistor can be used in compensating the circuit due to its ability
to offset temperature variation hence thermistor help in voltage
stabilization. The effect of temperature increase on a supply voltage
may be reduced by the use of temperature. Sensitive resistors
(thermistors).
AMPLIFIER: An amplifier is a device which allows a small amount
of power to control a larger power. The process of increasing the
power of an a.c signal is called amplification.
CLASSIFICATION OF AMPLIFIERS
There are three main classes of amplifiers, they are:
Class A Amplifier: Current flows in the load during the whole
period of the input signal cycle.
Class B Amplifier: Load current flows for one-half cycle of the
input signal wave-form.
Class C Amplifier: Current flows for less than one-half cycle of the
input signal wave form.
Class AB Amplifier: Load current flows for more than one-half
cycle, but less than the full cycle of the input signal wave form.
FEED BACK AMPLIFIERS:
A feedback amplifier is one in which a fraction of the amplifier output
is feed back to the input circuit.
This partial dependence of amplifier output on its input helps to
control the output . A feedback amplifier consist of two parts: an
amplifier and a feedback circuit.
Operation and characteristics of common collector amplifier
Mode of operation – when positive half-cycle of the signal is applied
then:
i. Forward bias is increased since VBE is positive
ii. Base current is increased
iii. emitted current is increased
iv. Drop across Re is increased
v. output voltage drop across RE is increased
Characteristics of common collector amplifier are:
High input impedance (20-500k)
Low output impedance (50-1000Ω)
High current gain (it) i.e. 50-500)
Voltage gain of less than I
Power gain of 10 to 20dB
No phase reversal of the input signal
Operation and characteristics of common collector amplifier
Input signal enter the circuit in series connection (series
characteristics) here weak signal is increased at the output terminal
Effect of drift in Dc Amplifiers
Any charge input voltage will not alter or change the outcomes of the
output signal provided it is forward biased but if the input voltage is
reversed biased the outcomes of the output signal will experienced
“hangover”
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE FEEDBACK PHENOMENA IN
AMPLIFIERS
FEED BACK AMPLIFIERS:
A feedback amplifier is one in which a fraction of the amplifier output
is feed back to the input circuit.
This partial dependence of amplifier output on its input helps to control
the output . A feedback amplifier consist of two parts: an amplifier and a
feedback circuit .
TYPES OF FEEDBACK: There are two types of feedback namely:
(a) Positive feedback
(b) Negative feedback
POSITIVE FEED BACK: If the feedback voltage (or current) is so
applied as to increase the input voltage (i.e it is in phases with it), then it
is called positive feedback. Other names for it are: regenerative or direct
feedback.
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK: If the feedback voltage (or current) is so
applied as to reduce the amplifier input (ie it is 180o out of phases with
it) then it is called negative feedback. Other names for it are:
degenerative or inverse feedback. Negative feedback is frequently used
in amplifier circuits.
Block diagram of a basic feedback amplifier

 
General expression for voltage gain of basic feedback
amplifier Avf = Av
1 + AvMv

Using the formula calculate the overall gain of a multistage amplifier is

140. When negative voltage feedback is applied, the gain is reduced
to 17.5. Find the fraction of the output that is feedback to the input.
 
Solution:
Av = 140, Avf = 17.5
Let Mv be the feedback fraction. Voltage gain with negative feedback
is
Avf= Av
1 + Av Mv
17.5 = 140
1+140 Mv

17.5 + 2450Mv = 140

Mv = 140 – 17.5 = 1
2450 20
Negative feedback type using block diagram
i. Series current feedback. It is a series (SS) circuit. Here a part
of the output voltage in series with the input.

(Block diagram series current)

ii. Series diagram series current: Here the amplified and feedback
circuit are connected is series –parallel and the fraction of the
output voltage is applied in series with the input voltage via the
feedback. Again, the feedback network is in parallel with the
output of the amplifier.
 Vi A Vo Rl

(Block diagram series Voltage)

iii. Parallel (shunt) current: It is a parallel-series prototype the

feed back network picks up a part of the output current and
develops a feedback voltage in parallel (shunt) with the input
voltage. Feedback network shunts the input but is in series
with the output. Hence output resistance of the amplifier is
increased whereas the input resistance is decrease by a factor
of loop gain.
 A Vo RL
Vi

i. Emitted follower: It is a negative current feedback circuit. The

emitted follow is a current amplifier that has no voltage gain. Its
most important characteristics is that it has high input impedance
and low output impedance. This makes it an ideals circuit for
impedance matching.
ii. Source follower: The circuit servers the purpose of providing
leakage path to the gate current, develops gate bias and provides
ac ground to the input signal and acts as drain load
EFFECT OF VOLTAGE FEEDBACK ON AMPLIFIER GAIN AND
INPUT/OUTPUT IMPEDANCE
The effect of voltage feedback on amplifier gain will produce excessive
distortion; it is seldom used in amplifiers. However, because it
increases the power of the original signal.

Equivalent circuit diagram for amplifiers

Dc Equivalent circuit
Ac Equivalent Circuit

STABILIZED POWER SUPPLY

 HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION
In half wave rectification, the rectifier conducts current only during
the positive half-cycle of input a.c supply. The negative half-cycle of
a.c supply are suppressed ie during negative half-cycles, no current is
conducted and hence no voltage appears across the load. Therefore,
current always flows in one direction (ie d.c) through the load though
after every half-cycle.
 A i i

O
AC RL V O ut
Supp ly in

V out
B

O t
(ii)
0 0

(i)

FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER
In full- wave rectification, current flows through the load in the same
direction for both half-cycles of input a.c voltage. This can be
achieved with two diodes working alternatively. For the positive half –
cycle of input voltage one diode supplies current to the load and for
the negative half, cycle the other diode does so; current being always
in the same direction through the load. Therefore, a full-wave rectifier
utilizes both half-cycles of input a.c voltage to produce the d.c output.
 FULL-WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER
It is the most frequently used circuit for electronic d.c power supplies.
It contains four diode D1, D2, D3, and D4 connected to form bridge. The
a.c supply to be rectified is applied to the diagonally opposite end of
the bridge through the transformer. Between other two ends of the
bridge the Load resistance RL is connected.
 
 P Se c o n d a ry v o lta g e
V out
D4
D1 Vin

AC
Supply A
+
RL V out +

+
D2 D3 O t
-
O t
Fig VII DI D3 D2D4D1D3

OPERATION: During the positive half-cycle of secondary voltage, the

end p of the secondary winding becomes positive and end Q negative.
This makes diodes D1 and D3 forward biased while diodes D2 and D4
are reverse biased. Therefore, only diodes D1 and D3 conduct. These
two diodes will be in series through the load RL as shown in Fig VII
(a). The conventional current flow is shown by dotted arrows. It may
be seen that current flows from A to b through the load RL. During
the negative half-cycle of secondary voltage, end P become negative
and end Q positive. This makes diodes D2 and D4 forward biased
whereas diodes D1 and D3 are reverse biased. Therefore, only diodes
D2 and D4 conduct. These two diodes will be in series through the
load RL as shown in fig VII (b). the current flow is shown by solid
arrows. It may be seer that again current flows from A to B through
the load ie in the same direction as for the positive half cycle.
Therefore d.c output is obtained across load RL.
NEED FOR A SMOOTHING CIRCUIT AT THE OUTPUT OF A
RECTIFIED STABILIZER
The reason behind stabilized voltage is as follow
(a) Used for economic purposes –day to day industrial and
domestic use.
(b) For steady voltage supply
(c) It Eliminates power fluctuations
(d) Used for effective power consumption
(e) Used for industrial purposes.
i. Capacitor input filter: The output from the rectifier is first
given to the shunt capacitor C. The rectifier used can be half or
full wave and the capacitors are usually electrolytic even though
they large in size. In practical applications, the two capacitances
are enclosed in a metal container which acts as a common
ground for the two capacitors. Circuit diagram and the waveform
are given below.

 
When compared to other type of filters, the II-Filter has some
advantages like higher de voltage and smaller ripple factor. But it also
has some disadvantages like poor voltage regulation. High peak diode
current, and high peak inverse voltage.
 
ii. Inductance Input filter:
An inductor filter increases the ripple factor with the increase in load
current Rload. A capacitor filter has an inversely proportional ripple
factor with respect to load resistance. Economically, both inductor
filter and capacitor filter are not suitable for high end purpose.
L-C inductor input or L-section filter consists of an inductor. ‘L’
connected in series with a half or full wave rectifier and a capacitor ‘C’
across the load. This arrangement is also called a choke input filter or
L-section filter because it’s shape resembles and inverted L-shape. To
increase the smoothing action using the filter circuit, just one L-C
circuit will not be enough. Several L-section filters will be arranged to
obtain a smooth filtered output. The circuit diagram and smoothened
waveform of a full wave rectifier output is shown below:
 L-C Filter-Inductor input L Section Filter

As shown in the circuit diagram above, the inductor L allows the dc to

pass but restricts the flow of ac components as its dc resistance is
very small and ac impedance is large.
 
Performance of the filter using the output voltage load
current characteristics.
The filter circuit removes the alternating current component so that
steady direct current voltage is obtained across the load.
Point P
Operation of base rectifier circuit.
 Operation of a simple stabilizer power supply using

i. SHUNT REGULATOR TRANSISTOR

ii. SERIES REGULATOR TRANSISTOR

iii. SHUNT/SERIES REGULATOR

Limitation of the various methods of a stabilized supply
The internal resistance of ordinary power voltage is affected by the
amount of load current drawn from the supply. This variation in dc
voltage may cause erratic operation of electronic circuit
CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)
Cathode ray oscilloscope is an electronic device which is capable of
giving a visual indication of a signal waveform. It is widely used for
trouble shooting radio and television receivers as well as for
laboratory work involving research and design. With an oscilloscope,
the wave shape of a signal can be studied with respect to amplitude
distortion and deviation from the normal. It can also be used for
measuring voltage, frequency and phase shift. In an oscilloscope, the
electron are emitted from a high velocity and brought to focuses on a
fluorescent screen. The screen produces a visible spot where the
electron beam strikes. By deflection the electron beam over the
screen in response to the electrical signal, the electrons can be
made to act as an electrical pencil of light which produces a spot
of light wherever it strikes. An oscilloscope obtains its remarkable
properties as a measuring instrument from the fact that it uses as an
indicating needle beam of electrons. As electrons have negligible
mass, therefore, they respond almost instantaneously which acted
upon by an electrical signal and can trace almost any electrical
variation no matter how rapid. A cathode ray oscilloscope contains
a cathode ray tube and necessary power equipment to make it
operate. X deflection plates
Cathode ray tube

Trigger slope selection

External x signal

External Sync.
Trigger Time Base X
Trigger Pulse
am plifier Generator Am plifier
Signal Generator
Y deflection
Plates
ooo
ooo
Fly back suppression Grid ooo
ooo
and Z

Input Y
Attenuator Am plifier To am plifier

Brilliance
(Block Diagram of a cathode ray oscilloscope ) Focus
Power
Supplies And
Astigm atism
Control

(BLOCK DIAGRAM OF CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE)

Cathode ray tube
A cathode ray tube (CRT) is the heart of oscilloscope. It is a vacuum
tube of special geometrical shape and converts an electrical signal into
visual one. CRT makes available plenty of electrons which makes it easy
for electrical signal waveform to display visually.
Ano de

Z m od u latio n C atho de
inpu t
K G A1 A2 A3 1 Y1

N
X1
X2

O .1
Y2
UF

Gr aph ite
Co ating

F ocu s Astig m atism

B rillian ce Con tr ol Co n tr ol
Co n tr ol E. H. T.
S up ply

(A schematic diagram of (C.R.T) cathode ray tube)

application of cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO)
Cathode ray oscilloscope provides useful solutions during electrical and
electronic trouble shooting which can be grouped thus:
a. Frequency Measurement: The unknown frequency can be
accurately determined with the help of CRO.
b. Examination of Waveform: CRO is used to observe the wave
shapes of voltages in various types of electronic circuits.
c. Voltage Measurement: Accurate voltage measure can be
determined effectively through the use of cathode ray oscilloscope.