Transformers

Introduction
• A transformer is a device that changes ac electric power at
one voltage level to ac electric power at another voltage
level through the action of a magnetic field.
• There are two or more stationary electric circuits that are
coupled magnetically.
• It involves interchange of electric energy between two or
more electric systems
• Transformers provide much needed capability of changing
the voltage and current levels easily.
– They are used to step-up generator voltage to an appropriate
voltage level for power transfer.
– Stepping down the transmission voltage at various levels for
distribution and power utilization.
 Transformer Classification

• In terms of number of windings

– Conventional transformer: two windings
– Autotransformer: one winding
– Others: more than two windings

• In terms of number of phases

– Single-phase transformer
– Three-phase transformer

• Depending on the voltage level at which the winding is operated

– Step-up transformer: primary winding is a low voltage (LV)
winding
– Step-down transformer : primary winding is a high voltage (HV)
winding
 Primary and Secondary Windings

A two-winding transformer consists of two windings interlinked

by a mutual magnetic field.
– Primary winding – energized by connecting it to an input
source
– Secondary winding – winding to which an electrical load is
connected and from which output energy is drawn.

Primary winding Secondary winding

 Ideal Transformers

An ideal transformer is a lossless device with an input winding

and an output winding. It has the following properties:

• No iron and copper losses

• No leakage fluxes
• A core of infinite magnetic permeability and of infinite
electrical resistivity
• Flux is confined to the core and winding resistances are
negligible
 Ideal Transformers
An ideal transformer is a lossless device with an input winding
and an output winding.



The relationships between the input voltage and the output voltage,
and between the input current and the output current, are given by
the following equations.
v p t  i s t 
In instantaneous quantities  a
v s t  i p t 
 Ideal Transformers

v p t  i s t  N p
  a
v s t  i p t  N s

Vp I
In rms quantities  s a
Vs I p

Np: Number of turns on the primary winding

Ns: Number of turns on the secondary winding
vp(t): voltage applied to the primary side
vs(t): voltage at the secondary side
a: turns ratio
ip(t): current flowing into the primary side
is(t): current flowing into the secondary side
 Derivation of the Relationship

d p t d M t  …………….. (1)

v p t    Np
dt dt
d t  d t  …………….. (2)
v s t   s  N s M
dt dt
v p t  N p
Dividing (1) by (2)   a ………………......……….. (3)
v s t  N s

From Ampere’s law N p i p t   N s i s t 

i s t  N p …………………..……….. (4)
 a
i p t  N s

v p t  i s t  N p ………………….. (5)
Equating (3) and (4)   a
v s t  i p t  N s
 Power in an Ideal Transformer

Real power P supplied to the transformer by the primary circuit

Pin  V p I p cos  p
 p  s  
Real power coming out of the secondary circuit
Vp 
Pout  V s I s cos  s    
 aI p cos   V p I p cos   Pin

 a 
Thus, the output power of an ideal transformer is equal to its input power.

The same relationship applies to reactive Q and apparent power S:

 Is 
 
Qin  V p I p sin   aVs   cos   V s I s sin   Qout
 a 
S in  V p I p  V s I s  S out
 Impedance Transformation through a Transformer

Ip Is
Impedance of the load:
ZL = Vs/Is
Vp Vs ZL
The impedance of the primary circuit:
Z’L = Vp/Ip
= (aVs)/(Is /a)
= a2 (Vs / Is )
= a2 ZL

Ip Is
Z’L

Vp Vs
 Example 1

A 100-kVA, 2400/240-V, 60-Hz step-down transformer

(ideal) is used between a transmission line and a
distribution system.

a) Determine turns ratio.

b) What secondary load impedance will cause the
transformer to be fully loaded, and what is the
corresponding primary current?
c) Find the load impedance referred to the primary.
 Solution to Example 1

a) Turns ratio, a = 2400 / 240 = 10

b) Is= 100,000/240 = 416.67 A

Ip = Is /a = 416.67 / 10 = 41.67 A
Magnitude of the load impedance
= Vs/Is = 240/416.7 = 0.576 ohm

c) Load impedance referred to the primary

= a2*0.576 = 57.6 ohm
Theory of Operation of Single-Phase Real Transformers

Leakage flux: flux that goes through one of the transformer windings
but not the other one
Mutual flux: flux that remains in the core and links both windings
Theory of Operation of Single-Phase Real Transformers

 P   M   LP
 S   M   LS

p: total average primary flux

M : flux linking both primary and secondary windings
LP: primary leakage flux
S: total average secondary flux
LS: secondary leakage flux
 Magnetization Current

E1

When an ac power source is connected to a transformer, a current flows

in its primary circuit, even when the secondary circuit is open circuited.
This current is the current required to produce flux in the ferromagnetic
core and is called excitation current. It consists of two components:
1. The magnetization current Im, which is the current required to
produce the flux in the transformer core
2. The core-loss current Ih+e, which is the current required to make up
for hysteresis and eddy current losses
 The Magnetization Current in a Real Transformer
When an ac power source is connected to the primary of a transformer, a
current flows in its primary circuit, even when there is no current in the
secondary. The transformer is said to be on no-load. If the secondary current
is zero, the primary current should be zero too. However, when the
transformer is on no-load, excitation current flows in the primary because of
the core losses and the finite permeability of the core.
Ic
E1
Excitation current, Io o

Magnetization current IM
(current required to produce flux IM
in the core) Io

Core-loss current Ih+e 

(current required to make up for
IM is proportional to the flux 
hysteresis and eddy current losses)
Ic = Ih+e = Core loss/E1
 The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

The losses that occur in transformers have to be accounted for in any

accurate model of transformer behavior.
1. Copper (I2R) losses. Copper losses are the resistive heating losses in the
primary and secondary windings of the transformer. They are proportional
to the square of the current in the windings.
2. Eddy current losses. Eddy current losses are resistive heating losses in
the core of the transformer. They are proportional to the square of the
voltage applied to the transformer.
3. Hysteresis losses. Hysteresis losses are associated with the
rearrangement of the magnetic domains in the core during each half-cycle.
They are a complex, nonlinear function of the voltage applied to the
transformer.
4. Leakage flux. The fluxes which escape the core and pass through only
one of the transformer windings are leakage fluxes. These escaped fluxes
produce a self-inductance in the primary and secondary coils, and the
effects of this inductance must be accounted for.
 The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
Modeling the copper losses: resistive losses in the primary and secondary
windings of the core, represented in the equivalent circuit by RP and RS.
Modeling the leakage fluxes: primary leakage flux is proportional to the
primary current IP and secondary leakage flux is proportional to the
secondary current IS, represented in the equivalent circuit by XP (=LP/IP) and
XS (=LS/IS).
Modeling the core excitation: Im is proportional to the voltage applied to the
core and lags the applied voltage by 90o. It is modeled by XM.
Modeling the core loss current: Ih+e is proportional to the voltage applied to
the core and in phase with the applied voltage. It is modeled by RC.
 The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
Although the previous equivalent circuit is an accurate model of a transformer,
it is not a very useful one. To analyze practical circuits containing transformers,
it is normally necessary to convert the entire circuit to an equivalent circuit at a
single voltage level. Therefore, the equivalent circuit must be referred either to
its primary side or to its secondary side in problem solutions.

Figure (a) is the equivalent

circuit of the transformer
referred to its primary side.

Figure (b) is the equivalent

circuit referred to its secondary
side.
Approximate Equivalent Circuits of a Transformer
Determining the Values of Components in the Transformer Model

It is possible to experimentally determine the parameters of the

approximate the equivalent circuit. An adequate approximation of
these values can be obtained with only two tests….

• open-circuit test
• short-circuit test
 Circuit Parameters: Open-Circuit Test

• Transformer's secondary winding is open-circuited

• Primary winding is connected to a full-rated line voltage. All the
input current must be flowing through the excitation branch of the
transformer.
• The series elements Rp and Xp are too small in comparison to RC and
XM to cause a significant voltage drop, so essentially all the input
voltage is dropped across the excitation branch.
• Input voltage, input current, and input power to the transformer are
measured.
 Circuit Parameters: Open-Circuit Test

The magnitude of the excitation admittance:

I
YE  oc
Voc

The open-circuit power factor and power factor angle:

Poc 1  Poc 
PF  cos   or ,   cos  
Voc I oc V I
 oc oc 

The power factor is always lagging for a transformer, so the current will
lag the voltage by the angle . Therefore, the admittance YE is:

1 1 I
YE  j  oc   cos 1  PF 
RC X M Voc
 Circuit Parameters: Short-Circuit Test

• Transformer's secondary winding is short-circuited

• Primary winding is connected to a fairly low-voltage source.
• The input voltage is adjusted until the current in the short-circuited
windings is equal to its rated value.
• Input voltage, input current, and input power to the transformer are
measured.
• Excitation current is negligible, since the input voltage is very low.
Thus, the voltage drop in the excitation branch can be ignored. All the
voltage drop can be attributed to the series elements in the circuit.
 Circuit Parameters: Short-Circuit Test
The magnitude of the series impedance:
V
Z SE  sc
I sc

The short-circuit power factor and power factor angle:

Psc 1  Psc 
PF  cos   or ,   cos  
Vsc I sc Vsc I sc 

Therefore the series impedance is:

Z SE  Req  jX eq

    V
 R p  a 2 Rs  j X p  a 2 X s  sc  cos 1 PF 
I sc

It is possible to determine the total series impedance, but there is no easy

way to split the series impedance into the primary and secondary
components. These tests were performed on the primary side, so, the
circuit impedances are referred to the primary side.
 Example 2 (Example 2-2, page 92 of your text)

The equivalent circuit impedances of a 20-kVA, 8000/240-V, 60-Hz

transformer are to be determined. The open-circuit test and the short-
circuit test were performed on the primary side of the transformer, and
the following data were taken:
Open-circuit test Short-circuit test
(on primary) (on primary)

Voc = 8000 V Vsc = 489 V

Ioc = 0.214 A Isc = 2.5 A
Poc = 400 W Psc = 240 W

Find the impedances of the approximate equivalent circuit referred to

the primary side, and sketch the circuit.
Answer to Example 2
 Transformer Voltage Regulation
Because a real transformer has series impedance within it, the output voltage
of a transformer varies with the load even if the input voltage remains
constant. The voltage regulation of a transformer is the change in the
magnitude of the secondary terminal voltage from no-load to full-load.

V no  load   Vs  full  load 

%Voltage Re gulation  s  100
Vs  full  load 

V p no  load   V p  full  load 

  100
V p  full  load 

Referred to the primary side

 Transformer Voltage Regulation

• Since a real transformer contains series impedances, the

transformer’s output voltage varies with the load even if the input
voltage is constant. To compare transformers in this respect, the
quantity called a full-load voltage regulation (VR) is defined as
follows
Vp
Vs ,nl  Vs , fl a  Vs , fl
VR  .100%  .100%
Vs , fl Vs , fl

• In a per-unit system:
V p , pu  Vs , fl , pu
VR  .100%
Vs , fl , pu

Where Vs,nl and Vs,fl are the secondary no load and full load voltages
Note, the VR of an ideal transformer is zero.
 Transformer phasor diagram
• To determine the VR of a transformer, it is necessary to understand the
voltage drops within it. Usually, the effects of the excitation branch on
transformer VR can be ignored and, therefore, only the series impedances
need to be considered. The VR depends on the magnitude of the
impedances and on the current phase angle.
• A phasor diagram is often used in the VR determinations. The phasor
voltage Vs is assumed to be at 00 and all other voltages and currents are
compared to it.
• Considering the diagram and by applying the Kirchhoff’s voltage law, the
primary voltage is
Vp
 Vs  Req I s  jX eq I s
a

• A transformer phasor diagram is a graphical representation of this equation

 Transformer phasor diagram

• A transformer operating at a lagging power factor

• It is seen that Vp/a > Vs, VR > 0

• A transformer operating at a unity power factor

• It is seen that VR > 0

• A transformer operating at a leading power factor

• If the secondary current is leading,

the secondary voltage can be higher
than the referred primary voltage;
VR < 0.
 Transformer Efficiency
• The efficiency of a transformer is defined as:

Pout Pout
  100%   100%
Pin Pout  Ploss

• Note: the same equation describes the efficiency of motors and generators
• Considering the transformer equivalent circuit, we notice three types of
losses:
1. Copper (I2R) losses – are accounted for by the series resistance
2. Hysteresis losses – are accounted for by the resistor Rc.
3. Eddy current losses – are accounted for by the resistor Rc.
• Since the output power is Pout  Vs I s Cos

• The transformer efficiency is Vs I s Cos

  100%
Pcu  Pcore  Vs I s Cos
 Transformer Efficiency

Power Output

Power Input
Power Input  Losses

Power Input
Losses
1
Power Input
Pcopper loss  Pcore loss
1
Pcopper loss  Pcore loss  V s I s cos 

Usually the efficiency for a power transformer is between 0.9 to 0.99.

The higher the rating of a transformer, the greater is its efficiency.
 Example 3
A 15 kVA, 2300/230 V transformer was tested to by open-circuit and
closed-circuit tests. The following data was obtained:
• VOC = 2300 V ISC = 6.0 A
• POC = 50 W VSC = 47 V
• PSC = 160 W IOC = 0.21 A
• . Find the equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to the high-voltage
side.
• b. Find the equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to the low-voltage
side.
• c. Calculate the full-load voltage regulation at 0.8 lagging power factor, at 1.0
power factor, and at 0.8 leading power factor.
• d. Plot the voltage regulation as load is increased from no load to full load at
power factors of 0.8 lagging, 1.0, and 0.8 leading.
• e. What is the efficiency of the transformer at full load with a power factor of
0.8 lagging?
 The auto-Transformer
• Sometimes, it is desirable to change the voltage by a small amount (for instance, when the
consumer is far away from the generator and it is needed to raise the voltage to compensate for
voltage drops).
• In such situations, it would be expensive to wind a transformer with two windings of approximately
equal number of turns. An autotransformer (a transformer with only one winding) is used instead.
• Diagrams of step-up and step-down autotransformers:

Series
Winding

Series winding

Common
Winding

Output (up) or input (down) voltage is a sum of voltages across common and series windings .
Common winding
 The auto-Transformer

• Since the autotransformer’s coils are physically connected, a different terminology is

used for autotransformers:
• The voltage across the common winding is called a common voltage VC, and the
current through this coil is called a common current IC. The voltage across the series
winding is called a series voltage VSE, and the current through that coil is called a
series current ISE.

• The voltage and current on the low-voltage side are called VL and IL; the voltage and
current on the high-voltage side are called VH and IH.
VC NC

• For the autotransformers: VSE N SE

N C I C  N SE I SE
VL  VC I L  I C  I SE

VH  VC  VSE I H  I SE
 Voltage and current relationships in an auto-transformer

• For high side voltage

N SE N
VH  VC  VC  VL  SE VL
NC NC

• Therefore VL NC

VH N C  N SE

• The current relationship will be

N SE N
I L  I SE  I SE  I H  SE I H
NC NC
• Therefore
I L N C  N SE

IH NC
 The apparent power advantage

• Not all the power traveling from the primary to the secondary winding of the
autotransformer goes through the windings. As a result, an autotransformer can
handle much power than the conventional transformer (with the same windings).
• Considering a step-up autotransformer, the apparent input and output powers are:
S in  VL I L

S H  VL I L

• It is easy to show that Sin  Sout  S10

• where SIO is the input and output apparent powers of the autotransformer. However,
the apparent power in the autotransformer’s winding is
SW  VC I C  VSE I SE
SW  VL ( I L  I H )  VL I L  VL I H
NC N SE
 VL I L  VL I L  S10
N SE  N C N SE  N C
 The apparent power advantage

• Therefore, the ratio of the apparent power in the primary and secondary of the
autotransformer to the apparent power actually traveling through its windings is
S10 N  NC
 SE
SW N SE

• The last equation described the apparent power rating advantage of an

autotransformer over a conventional transformer.
• SW is the apparent power actually passing through the windings. The rest passes
from primary to secondary parts without being coupled through the windings.
• Note that the smaller the series winding, the greater the advantage!
 The apparent power advantage

• For example, a 5 MVA autotransformer that connects a 110 kV system to a 138 kV

system would have a turns ratio (common to series) 110:28. Such an autotransformer
would actually have windings rated at:
N SE 28
SW  S10  5  1.015MVA
N SE  N C 28  110

• Therefore, the autotransformer would have windings rated at slightly over 1 MVA
instead of 5 MVA, which makes is 5 times smaller and, therefore, considerably less
expensive.
• However, the construction of autotransformers is usually slightly different. In
particular, the insulation on the smaller coil (the series winding) of the
autotransformer is made as strong as the insulation on the larger coil to withstand the
full output voltage.
• The primary disadvantage of an autotransformer is that there is a direct physical
connection between its primary and secondary circuits. Therefore, the electrical
isolation of two sides is lost.
 PU System
Per unit system, a system of dimensionless parameters, is used for
computational convenience and for readily comparing the performance
of a set of transformers or a set of electrical machines.
Actual Quantity
PU Value 
Base Quantity

Where ‘actual quantity’ is a value in volts, amperes, ohms, etc.

[VA]base and [V]base are chosen first.
VA base
I base 
V base
Pbase  Qbase  S base  VA base  V base I base VA base pri  VA base sec
V base V base
2
V base
2
Rbase  X base  Z base   
I base S base VA base V base pri
 turns ratio
I base V base sec
Ybase 
V base
Z ohm
Z PU

Z base
 Example 4 (Problem No. 2-2, page 144 of your text)
A 20-kVA, 8000:480-V distribution transformer has the following
resistances and reactances:

RP = 32 ohm RS = 0.05 ohm

XP = 45 ohm XS = 0.06 ohm

RC = 250,000 ohm XM = 30,000 ohm

The excitation branch impedances are referred to the high-voltage side.

a) Find the equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to the high-
voltage side.
b)

b) Find the per unit equivalent circuit of this transformer.

c) Assume that the transformer is supplying rated load at 480 V and 0.8
power factor lagging. What is this transformer’s input voltage? What
is its voltage regulation?
d) What is this transformer’s efficiency under the conditions of part (c)?