2.1.

Introduction
What is a Particle?
 The terms particles, powder, and particulate solids are often used
interchangeably.
 A particle is a part of a whole.
 In a very general sense particles are the basic building blocks of life, the
universe, everything.
A particle has a definite shape and size
 So, it is all a matter of size.
 Cont…
Particle technology
 Particle technology is a term that refers to the field of the
science and technology associated with the
characterization,
formation,
processing, and
utilization of particles
 Itis concerned with the systems in which one or more of the
components are in the form of particles.
 Particle technology is often also referred to as powder technology.
 Cont…
 A knowledge of particle technology may be
 used to ensuring successful particle synthesis and handling, particulate
process design, and optimization in operation.
 Ignorance of particle technology may result in
 Loss in production
 poor product quality,
 risk to health,
 dust explosion or storage silo collapse.
2.2. Particle Characterization

 The three most important characteristics of an individual particle are

its shape
its size and
its composition
a) Particle size
 The size of a spherical (regular) particle is defined either by its diameter
or its radius.
 The size of a non-spherical (irregular) particle usually refer to as an
equivalent diameter, which is based on either the geometric equivalence
(eg, volume or surface area)
 Usingthe projected area method, size can be defined by three characteristic
dimensions:
 Major diameter (Ferret- diameter), -which is the longest dimension of the
maximum projected area (area of the particles); The major diameter is the very
longest diameter completely inside the projected area
 Intermediate diameter (Martin diameter), which is the minimum diameter of the
maximum projected area or the maximum diameter of the minimum projected
area; Diameter which cuts projected area into equal area parts (but may be
different shape).
 Minor diameter which is the shortest dimension of the minimum projected area.
 Length, width, and thickness terms are commonly used that correspond to major, intermediate,
and minor diameters, respectively.
 Some of definitions for equivalent diameters are given below.

Specific Surface Area

 Specific surface area is another geometric quantity that can be used to characterize the size of
individual particles
 The specific surface of an individual particle can be based on either volume or mass of the
particle.
 Table specific surface area of particles

 With the density of the particle known ρs the terms can be converted from one to the other:
AV = ρs · Am
where
AV - specific surface based on volume in m −1
Am - specific surface based on mass in m2 · kg −1
A - surface area of all particles of the sample in m 2
V - volume of all particles of the sample in m 3
m - mass of all particles of the sample in kg
ρs- density of particle in kg · m -3
 Cont…

 In bulk materials, the specific surface area is defined as:

 the total surface area covering the inner surface of all the hollow pore spaces within the
porous bulk material per unit of bulk volume or unit of bulk mass of the bulk material.
For particles with irregular shape the specific surface area can be estimated using
equivalent diameters for the individual particles:
using equivalent diameters :

and so,
Cont…

with dA = dV the calculation is simplified to:

Example 2.1
 Assuming sugar powder consists of uniform spherical particles with a diameter of d = 10
m. Calculate specific surface area of individual sugar crystal particles with the density of
1500kg/m3 in the powder and as a bulk materials if the density of bulk powdered sugar
is 700kg/m3.
Solution
Given
 d=10
 Density of individual sugar particle = 1500kg/m3
 Density of bulk sugar particles = 700kg/m3
 Av = = = 6.105m-1
 When the particle density (individual particle ) is
ρs = 1500kg/m3

Am = = =400m2/kg

When the particle density(bulk sugar powder) is 700kg/m3

Am = = = 860m2/kg
 b) Particle Shape
 Shapeof individual particle is expressed in terms of the sphericity (ɸs)
meaning sphere-like and it is independent of particle size.
 There are different definitions in use for quantifying sphericity.
 Sphericity is a measure of how spherical (round) an object is.
 It is the ratio of the surface area of a sphere (with the same volume as the given
particle) to the surface area of the particle. (most common)
 For spherical particle of diameter Dp, ɸs =1. for non spherical particles sphericity is
given by:
 Cont…

 Another definition for sphericity are those that quantify sphericity as a

dimensionless ratio of diameter of a volume-equivalent sphere to
diameter of area-equivalent particle.
Sphericity (φ) =

Where, dv- volume equivalent diameter of sphere.

dA- diameter of area equivalent particle

 The reciprocal of sphericity is shape factor (surface shape factor = )
 A shape factor is a dimensionless ratio indicating the similarity of the
given particle shape to a perfect sphere.
C) Particle Density (ρp)

Why we need to study particle characteristics??

 Quality of food materials can be assessed by measuring their densities.
 Density data of foods are required in separation processes, such as centrifugation and
sedimentation
 Particle density is the density of a particle that has not been structurally modified.
Bulk density
True density/tapped desity
 2.3. Methods Of Particle Size Measurement
 The size of a particle or the size distribution of a mixture of particles can be determined
using a number of methods.
 The most common includes:
 Sieving (screening)- best applicable for particle size above 50m
 Sedimentation and elutriation methods - >1 µm
 Microscopic analysis - 1–100 µm
 More sophisticated techniques such as
 ultra microscopy 0.0005-5.0 µm
 light scattering 0.1-10 µm
 X-ray scatterings0.005-0.05µm
 are used when high precision is desired in the particle size determination.
Screening (sieving) method
 This is a unit operation in which various
sizes of solid particles are separated into two
or more fractions by passing over screen(s).
 Mesh is defined as open spaces in a
network.
 The mesh number indicates the number of
aperture per linear length.
 Usually higher the mesh number, the smaller
will be the aperture size of the screen.
 For instance 200-mesh screen will have a
very small aperture size where as 20-mesh
screen will have a large
 HOW IT WORK ??
 2.4 Particle Size Distribution
 “Particle size distribution (PSD) of a powder, or granular material, or particles
dispersed in fluid, is a list of values or a mathematical function that defines
the relative amounts of particles present, sorted according to size.”
 Particle size distribution is also known as grain size distribution
 The particle size distribution of flour is known to play an important role in its
functional properties and the quality of end products.
 Introduction
 It is a unit operation in which the average size of solid pieces
3.1.Introduction
of food is reduced by the application of different forces.

 The reduction mechanism consists of deforming the food

piece until it breaks or tears.
 Depending on the material, the size reduction operation can be:

 Solid particle SR - grinding or cutting

 Liquid particle SR-emulsification, homogenization

or atomization in the case of immiscible liquid
globules.
  The energy requirements is
 Described by theoretical models (Kick’s, Rittinger’s, and
Bond’s laws).

 The extent or the efficiency of the process is expressed by

Introduction the reduction ratio (RR) w/c is the average size of the
feed’s particles to the average size of the product’s
particles).
 Various types of forces are used in size reduction
 In solid foods, the type of force applied (shear,
compression,or impact) and

 In emulsification (liquid foods), the type of energy for

shearing .
 a)In Solid foods
Methods and forces the solid material is subjected to stress by application of force.
used in SR There are two basic types of operation:

Cutting
 - (chopping, crushing, slicing, and dicing)
Grinding
 - (milling or comminution) to powders or pastes of
The methods are classified increasing fineness
according to the nature of Cutting
food materials
applied to break down large pieces of food into smaller pieces
 solid or
of a desired size and even of a defined shape for further
 liquid
processing or specified for a final product. E.g cutting of meat
Grinding

applied to reduce the material’s size by fracturing.

 b) In liquid foods
 The size reduction operation is related to the creation of smaller
Methods and forces globules by shearing forces (due to viscosity).
used in SR
 Includes:
Liquid Foods • homogenization
• emulsification
 The process is

 applied to natural food systems or involved in new

product designs.
 usually oil or fat globules in a water phase.
 In both cases emulsifying agents, present or added,

 contribute to the production and maintenance of

stable emulsions.
  All the three types of forces can be used in solid-size reduction
Forces Used In Size
processes, depending on
Reduction
the mechanical properties of the material and

the desired particle size of the final product,

The breakage or
deformation of food pieces  Compression forces- causes to become compacted
is achieved by applying
Are used for coarse crushing (reduction to a size of about 3
diverse forces.
 Compression mm) of hard materials.

forces For hard, friable, or crystalline foods,

 Impact forces Applied to break down externally hard grains and facilitate
 Shearing (or the separation of the internal part,
attrition) forces
e.g the separation of the endosperm from the bran in wheat.
  In size reduction equipment, more than one type of force may take part ;e.g
Forces Used In Size  for fibrous materials, combined impact and shearing
Reduction
forces are necessary

 The type of mill most suitable for a certain food application can be
selected according to products’ characteristics
 Compression
forces Example

 Impact forces  Roller mills use compression,

 Shearing (or  Hammer mills apply impact forces, and

attrition) forces  Disk attrition mills utilize shear forces

 While a combination of forces is necessary for the

production of powdered sugar, flour, mustard, and cocoa
 Compression forces
 Impact forces
 Shearing (or
attrition) forces
 Cut
  Rittinger’s law
 Based on the fact that particles do not deform before
breaking, therefore being infinitely brittle.
Energy And Power Requirement
For Size Reduction:  States that ‘’the energy required to reduce the particle size of
Comminution Laws
a material is proportional to the new surface area produced’’.
 Rittinger’s law  better for fine grinding, where a large increase in surface
(results RRs exceeding 100:1) .
where,
E = the energy per unit mass required for the production of a new surface by
reduction,
K = Rittinger’s constant = Kr*fc, fc is the crushing strength of the material
x1 = the average initial feed size, and
x2 = the average final product size.
Energy And Power Requirement
For Size Reduction:
Comminution Laws

 Kick’s law
  In such a way, by integration of general equation, the
following relation, known as Kick’s law is obtained:
Energy And Power
Requirement For
Size Reduction:
Comminution Laws
 Kick’s law  Were,
 E (J/kg) = the energy required per mass of feed,
 KK = Kick’s constant = kk*fc and
 x1/x2 = the size RR with
 x1 (m) = the average initial size of the feed’s particles
and
 x2 (m) = the average size of the product’s particles.
  Bond’s law
 Considers that the energy required for the reduction is inversely
proportional to the square root of the particle size produced.
Energy And Power Requirement Applicable well for a variety of materials undergoing coarse,
For Size Reduction: medium and fine size reduction.
Comminution Laws

 Bond’s law

where
 E (kWh ton−1) = the energy required for size reduction,
 x1 and x2 (µm) = the average size of the feed’s and
product’s particles, respectively, and
 K = 5Ei, where Ei (J kg−1) is the Bond Work Index
  Bond Work Index

 is the energy required to reduce a unit mass of

Energy And Power Requirement
For Size Reduction: material from an infinite particle size to a size
Comminution Laws such that 80% passes a 100-µm sieve.
 Bond’s law  Values of Bond Work Index obtained experimentally range
from 40 to 80 J kg−1 for hard foods such as sugar or grains.
  Example 1

 A food material is crushed in a crusher such that the average

Energy And Power Requirement size of particle is reduced from 50 mm to 10 mm with the
For Size Reduction:
consumption of energy of 13.0 kW/(kg/s). What would be
Comminution Laws
Examples the consumption of energy needed to crush the same
material of average size 75 mm to an average size of 25 mm:

 a) assuming Rittinger’s law applies?

 b) assuming Kick’s law applies?

 Which of these results would be regarded as being more

reliable and why?
  Example 2
 Food material is milled from 6 mm to 0.0012 mm using a 10

Energy And Power Requirement hp/kg/s motor. Would this motor be adequate to reduce the
For Size Reduction: size of the particles to 0.0008 mm? Assume Rittinger’s
Comminution Laws
equation and that 1 hp = 745.7 W.
Examples
 Solutions

 E=10hp/kg/s

 X1= 6mm

 X2 = 0.0012mm

 X2 = 0.0008mm
 Criteria for the Selection of Equipment

3.4. Size Reduction  When selecting a size reduction machine, the following

Equipment factors of the food material feed should be considered:

 Mechanical and structural properties,

Criteria for the Selection  Moisture content,

of Equipment  Temperature sensitivity, and

 The size distribution of the feed as well as

of the product
 1) Mechanical and structural properties

 hardness and friability are of major importance in

selecting the suitable equipment.
3.4. Size Reduction
Equipment  Used to determine the type of force
needed in performing the size reduction.

 The harder the material, the more difficult it is to

Criteria for the break down and more energy is required.
Selection of Equipment
 For most solid foods, ball mills, hammer mills,
roller mills, and attrition mills are commonly used
in the food industry.

 Foods with fibrous structure requires, disk mills, or

cutting devices.
 2) Moisture content

3.4. Size Reduction  Each food material must have the optimum moisture
Equipment content for milling to achieve the expedient performance;

 The food materials are subjected to either conditioning

(soaking) or drying to obtain the optimum moisture
content;

3) Temperature Sensitivity

 Considerable amounts of heat, generated during the mill’s

operation, lead to a considerable temperature increase that
affect the quality of food materials subjected to grinding.
Classification They
 are commonly classified according to their basic function
into one of three classes:
of SRE Crushers


Grinders
 or mills
Cutting
 machines
 Crushers
Another
 classification of the size reduction equipment can be
 Grinders or mills made according to the feed material into:
an
 equipment for size reduction of dry foods (including
 Cutting machines
crushers and grinders or mills) and
equipment for size reduction of fibrous foods (including
cutting machines).
  The appropriate equipment is selected according to its
Classification  Operation principles
of SRE  Individual characteristics and

 Crushers  The desired reduction range for its

applications in specific food materials

Crushers-for coarse reduction

 Jaw and gyratory crushers – large and are not
normally encountered in the food industry.
  Grinders or Mills- For Intermediate and fine

 Roller mills (crushing rolls)

Classification
 Impact (hammer) mills:
of SRE
 Attrition mills:

 Grinders or mills

3 Roll Mill
  Cutters – used for exact reduction
 Slicing and flaking equipment
Classification of  Dicing equipment:
SRE  Shredding equipment
 Cutting machines  Pulping equipment:

Slicing equipment

Dicing Equipment
Classification of
SRE:
summary

 Crushers
 Grinders or mills

 Cutting machines
 Roller
Mill(हिन्दी ).mp4
 How does a
Hammer Mill
Works - Mineral
Processing.mp4
 Disc Attrition mill
animation.mp4
 Ball Mill Critical S
peed & Working Pr
inciple.mp4
 VIPEAK Jaw Crush
er.mp4
 gyratory crusher.
mp4
  Introduction
 Size enlargement
3.5 Principles of Size
Enlargement  is the process by which smaller particles are put
together to form larger masses in which the
original particles can still be identified.
 Introduction
 Mainly associated with the pharmaceutical, agricultural
and food industries and

 Also plays an important role in other industries including

minerals, metallurgical and ceramics.
 The objectives of size enlargement operation is

 Improving handling and flowability

 Reducing dusting or material losses

 Producing structural useful forms

 Enhancing appearance,

 Increase bulk density for storage etc.

 Methods by which size enlargement is brought about includes

 Agglomeration(extrusion,)

 Improved the dispersibility of powdered

products.
  Granulation-is size enlargement by sticking together

Size
3.5 Principles of
smaller particles using agitation to impart energy to

Enlargement particles and granules.

 agglomeration by agitation methods

 Tabletting- in the pharmaceutical and chemical industries(food
 Methods
ingredients as dextrose, gelatin, glucose, sucrose, lactose, starch,
and food gums are used as binders)
 Encapsulation ( by spaying)
 Sintering -(welding together of small particles of metal by
applying heat below the melting point.) used in metallurgical
processes ,etc.
  Bonds are formed between powder particles

 So, that they adhere together to form granules by

3.5 Principles of Size
Enlargement interparticle forces

 The magnitude of these forces are determined by:

 The size of the particles,

Mechanisms of Particle
Bonding (Enlargement)  The structure of the granule,

 The moisture content, and the surface tension of the liquid

Surface tension is the tendency of liquid surfaces to shrink into the

minimum surface area possible. Surface tension allows insects,
usually denser than water, to float and slide on a water surface.

 There are five mechanisms responsible for (agglomeration)

  These includes:

Solid bridges,
3.5 Principles of Size Enlargement
Liquid bridges,

Van de Waals forces,

Mechanisms of Particle
Bonding (Enlargement)
Electrostatic forces, and

Interlocking bonds
  Solid bridges

 Arise from the material deposited between the

3.5 Principles of Size agglomerated particles.
Enlargement
 They may develop by diffusion of molecules from
one particle to another.
Mechanisms of Particle
Bonding (Enlargement)  Can also be built up by chemical reaction,
crystallization of dissolved substances, hardening of
binders, and solidification of melted components.

 Cohesive forces depends on the diameter of the

contact area and the strength of the bridge material.
  Liquid Bridges

3.5 Principles of Size  The force of particle adhesion arises either from the
Enlargement
surface tension of the liquid/air system (as in the
case of a liquid droplet) or from capillary pressure.
Mechanisms of Particle
Bonding (Enlargement)  The availability of sufficient moisture can
contribute to the bonding of fine particles by
effectively decreasing the distance between particles
and increasing the interparticle contact area.

 Mobile liquid bridges are a prerequisite to the solid

bridges formed by binders or other substances
dissolved in the granulating fluid.
  Attraction Forces Between Solid Particles

 These are surface forces, which decrease particle size

3.5 Principles of Size
Enlargement favoring the agglomerate stability by increasing the
surface/mass ratio.

Mechanisms of Particle  Van de Waals forces

Bonding (Enlargement)
 result from dipole interactions on a
molecular level and thus act over
very short distances.

 Electrostatic forces

 forces that arise from surface

charges on the particles.
  Outlines

Chapter  -Introduction

Four  -Flow Past a Cylinder and a Sphere

 -Drag Forces and Settling Velocities

Motion of  -Motion of Particles

Particles in a
Fluid
 Motion of INTRODUCTION

Particles in a Many methods of mechanical separation are based on the

Fluid  movement of solid particles or

 liquid drops through the fluid (gas or liquid flowing or at rest).

Introduction  If the particles starts at rest with respect to the fluid in which it
is immersed and is then moved through the fluid by an external
force, its motion can be divided into two stages:

 The Short period of acceleration, during which the

velocity increases from zero to terminal velocity.
 The period during which the particle is at its terminal
velocity
 4.2-Flow Past a Cylinder and a Sphere

 For a non-viscous fluid flowing past a cylinder, the velocity

4.2-Flow Past a Cylinder and direction of flow varies round the circumference.
and a Sphere
 Thus at A and D the fluid is brought to rest and at B and C the

velocity is at a maximum.

 Since the fluid is non-viscous, there is no drag, and an infinite

velocity gradient exists at the surface of the cylinder.

 If the fluid is incompressible and the cylinder is small, the sum

of the kinetic energy and the pressure energy is constant at all

points on the surface.

  The kinetic energy is a maximum at B and C and zero at A
and D
4.2-Flow Past a
Cylinder and a Sphere  so that the pressure falls from A to B and from A to C and
rises again from B to D and from C to D; the pressure at A
and D being the same.

 No net force is therefore exerted by the fluid on the

cylinder.
  When a viscous fluid flows over a surface, the fluid is
retarded in the boundary layer which is formed near the
surface and that the boundary layer increases in thickness
4.2-Flow Past a
with increase in distance from the leading edge.
Cylinder and a
Sphere  If the pressure is falling in the direction of flow, the
retardation of the fluid is less and the boundary layer is
thinner in consequence.

 If the pressure is rising, however, there will be a greater

retardation and the thickness of the boundary layer
increases more rapidly.
  The force acting on the fluid at some point in the boundary
layer may then be sufficient to bring it to rest or to cause flow in
4.2-Flow Past a the reverse direction with the result that an eddy current is set
Cylinder and a
up.
Sphere
 A region of reverse flow then exists near the surface where the
boundary layer has separated.

 The velocity rises from zero at the surface to a maximum

negative value and falls again to zero. It then increases in the
positive direction until it reaches the main stream velocity at the
edge of the boundary layer.

 At PQ the velocity in the X-direction is zero and the direction of

flow in the eddies must be in the Y -direction.
  For the flow of a viscous fluid past the cylinder, the

4.2-Flow Past a pressure decreases from A to B and from A to C

Cylinder and a  So that the boundary layer is thin and the flow is similar to
Sphere
that obtained with a non-viscous fluid.

 From B to D and from C to D the pressure is rising and

therefore the boundary layer rapidly thickens with the result
that it tends to separate from the surface.

 If separation occurs, eddies are formed in the wake of the

cylinder and energy is thereby dissipated

 form drag, is set up.

  For a rigid particle moving through a fluid, there are 3
forces acting on the body

- The external force (gravitational or centrifugal force)

4.2-Flow Past a
Cylinder and a Sphere - The buoyant force (opposite but parallel direction to
external force)

- The drag force ( is the resistance force caused by the

motion of a body through a fluid, such as water or air.
  Conditions of flow relative to a spherical particle are
similar to those relative to a cylinder except that the flow
pattern is three-directional.
4.2-Flow Past a
Cylinder and a Sphere  The flow is characterized by:
 The Reynolds number (Re = udρ/µ) in which

ρ - the density of the fluid,

µ - the viscosity of the fluid,

d - the diameter of the sphere, and

u - the velocity of the fluid relative to the particle.

  For the case of creeping flow, that is flow at very low
velocities relative to the sphere,

 the drag force F on the particle was

4.2-Flow Past a
obtained by Navier–Stokes and given by
Cylinder and a Sphere
 F = 3πµdu
 which is known as Stokes’ law

 Skin friction constitutes two-thirds of the total drag on the

particle.

 Thus, the total force F is made up of two components:

 (i) skin friction: 2πµdu

 (ii) form drag: πµdu

  Stokes’ law is applicable only at

 Very low values of the particle Reynolds

4.2-Flow Past a number and deviations become
Cylinder and a progressively greater as Re increases.
Sphere
 As Re increases, skin friction becomes proportionately less
and, at values greater than about 20, flow separation occurs
with the formation of vortices in the wake of the sphere.

 At high Reynolds numbers, the size of the vortices

progressively increases until, at values of between 100 and
200, instabilities in the flow give rise to vortex shedding.
 4.3.1.The Drag Force On A Spherical Particle

4.3. Drag Forces and  Drag force is the force in the direction of flow exerted by the fluid on

Settling Velocities the solid particles.

Drag coefficients

 Is dimensionless groups that relates drag force and velocity.

• The Drag Force  Involves the use of two dimensionless groups.
On A Spherical Particle Reynolds number Re = udρ/µ
Particle The group R/ρu2, in which R is the force per
• Settling Velocities unit projected area of particle in a plane
perpendicular to the direction of motion.

 For a sphere, the projected area is that of a circle of the same diameter
as the sphere
  For a sphere, the projected area is that of a circle of the

The Drag Force On same diameter as the sphere.

A Spherical Thus: R = F /(πd2/4)
Particle
 The group R/ρu2 is the form of drag coefficient often
denoted by the symbol CD

 and R/ρu2 =

 Frequently, a drag coefficient CD is defined as the ratio of

R to

Thus: CD =
  When the force F is given by Stokes’ law, then:
R/ρu2 = 12 =
 Are applicable only at very low values of the Reynolds
The Drag Force On A number.
Spherical Particle 4.3.2. Terminal falling /settling velocities

Terminal Settling  If a spherical particle is allowed to settle in a fluid under

Velocities gravity, its velocity will increase until the accelerating
force is exactly balanced by the resistance force.

 This maximum settling velocity is called terminal velocity.

 The relation between R/ρu2 and Re is conveniently given in
graphical form by means of a logarithmic plot.

 The graph may be divided into four regions.

 Region (a) (10−4 < Re < 0.2)-

 The relationship between R/ρu2

and Re is a straight line of slope
−1

represented by equation :

R/ρu2 = 12Re−1

 Region (b) (0.2 < Re < 500–1000)-

 Region (c) (500–1000 < Re < 2 × 10 5)

 Newton’s law is applicable and the value of R/ρu 2

is approximately constant giving:

R/ρu2 = 0.22

 Region (d) (Re > 2 × 105)

 The flow in the boundary layer changes from

streamline to turbulent and the separation
takes place nearer to the rear of the sphere.

 The drag force is decreased considerably and:

R/ρu2 = 0.05
 If the terminal falling velocity corresponds to a value of Re
less than 0.2 and started from rest, the drag force on the
particle is given by

 If the corresponding value of Re lies between 0.2 and 500,

the drag force is given approximately by

 If the terminal falling velocity corresponds to a value of Re

greater than about 500, the drag force is
 For region (d)

 The accelerating force due to gravity is given by:

where ρs is the density of the solid.

 The terminal falling velocity u0 corresponding to a region

is obtained by equating the accelerating force with the
force of corresponding region.
 The terminal falling velocity u0 corresponding to region
(a) is given by stoke’s law:

 The terminal falling velocity corresponding to region (c) is

often known as Newton’s law and given by:
 The basic assumptions in the expressions given for the drag
force and the terminal falling velocity are:

 The settling is not affected by the presence

of other particles in the fluid. This condition
is known as “free settling”. When the
interference of other particles is appreciable,
the process is known as “hindered settling”.

 The walls of the containing vessel do not

exert an appreciable retarding effect.

 That the fluid can be considered as a

continuous medium,
 These factors are considered further in the four
Sections/regions of the graph.
Question

 Drive equation of terminal falling velocity u0

corresponding to region (b).
 Example 1

Calculate the terminal falling velocity(corresponding to region

a and c) of 80 μm diameter starch granules (density 1600 kg
m−3) in water at 20◦C. The density and viscosity of water at
20◦C are 998.2 kg m−3 and 1.002 × 10−3 Pa s, respectively.
Examples Check the validity of the calculation.

Solutions
Given
= 1600kg/m3
= 998.2kg/m3
= 1.002*10-3pa.s
d= 80 μm
 uo = (- )

 uo = (1600kg/m3-998.2kg/m3)

 uo = 2.095*10-3m/s

 To check the validity of the calculation, calculate for

particles Reynold number,
 Re = ,
 Re =
 Re =0.167,
 Region (a) (10−4 < Re < 0.2) so, the calculation is valid
 For region (c)
 u2o= 3dg
 u2o= 3*80*10-6m*9.81m/s2
 u2o=1.42*10-3m2/s2
 uo= 3.8*10-2m/s

 Re = ,
 Re =

Re =3.028

Region (c) (500–1000 < Re < 2 × 105), so the calculation is

not valid for region (c)

Calculate similarly for region (b)

Example
 2
Calculate
 the terminal falling velocity of liquid milk droplets
of density 1350 kg m−3 falling in air through the chamber of a
spray drier at 227◦C. The droplet diameter is 150 μm.
At
 227◦C the density and viscosity of air are 0.706 kg m−3 and
2.67 × 10−5 Pa.s, respectively.
Solution


Given

= 1350kg/m3
= 0.706kg/m3
= 2.67*10-5pa.s
d= 150 μm
 uo = (- )

 uo = (1350kg/m3- 0.706kg/m3)

 uo = 0.620 m/s

 Similarly, Calculate for Region

b and c

 Also determine the validity of the

calculation after calculating for Re
 4.4.
 Motion of Particles
The
 motion of a particle through a fluid may be traced because
4.4. Motion of
Particles the value of the drag factor R/ρu2 for a given value of the
Reynolds number is fixed.
For
 the separation of particles of various sizes and shapes it often
depend
 on the variation in the behavior of the particles when they are
subjected to the action of a moving fluid.This involves relative
motion between the particles and a fluid.
The
 drag factor is often related, not only to the Reynolds number,
 but also to the number of particle diameters traversed by the
particle since the initiation of the motion.
Introduction
 Introduction cont...

 It removes undesirable small particulate suspended matter (sand, silt and

clay) and some biological contaminants from water under the influence of
gravity.

 The longer the water is stored or hold undisturbed, the more the suspended
solids and pathogens will settle to the bottom of the container.

 Adding coagulants can accelerate the sedimentation process.

Particles tend to settle as a mass and form a layer called “blanket”

 Introduction cont...
 Definition
Settling - process by which particulates settle to the bottom of a liquid and
form a sediment
Sedimentation - the deposition by settling of a suspended material.
TPES OF SEDIMETATION
1) plain sedimentation : when impurities are seperated from suspending fluid by
action of natural force alone, without aid of any coagulant
 Time consuming and low cost
2) sedimentation with coagulation :
 a chemical process that involves a neutralising charge on the particles.
 Fast settling and high cost
Example Aluminium sulfate,polyaluminium chloride(PAC)
Types of settling and force applied

 In settling and sedimentation, uses either gravity or due to centrifugal forces to

separate particulate material from fluid streams (either a liquid or a gas).

1) descrete settling:-When a particle is at a sufficient distance from the walls of

the container and from other particles so that its fall is not affected by them, the
process is called free or descrete settling
 In descrete settling individual particles settle independently
 There is no significant interaction with neighboring particles

 Example: removal of grit and sand in wastewater treatment

 Types of settling and force applied cont...

 2) Flocculant settling:- individual particles stick together into clumps

called floes.

 This occurs when there is a greater solids concentration and chemical or

biological reactions alter particle surfaces to enhance attachment.
 Thus, changing in size, shape, and perhaps specific gravity with each contact
 due to this settling velocity will be increase
 Example:- Settling of chemically coagulated waters.
 Types of settling and force applied cont...

 3) Hindered settling:- particle concentration is great enough to inhibit water

movement. water must move in spaces between particles.

 When the particles are crowded, they settle at lower rate

 4) Compression settling:-occurs when particles settle by compressing the mass below.

 Settling of particles from suspension depends on:

 Characteristics of the Particles

 Concentration of Particles in Suspension.

 Sedim
Mechanism of sedimentationentation of fine particles

 The longer the water is held undisturbed, the more the suspended solids and
pathogens will settle to the bottom of the container
 The suspended particles in water vary considerably in source, composition,
charge, particle size, shape and density.
 Most solids suspended in water possess a negative charge and since they
have the same charge sign, repel each other when they come close together.
 Therefore they will remain in suspension rather than clump together and
settle.
 Under the influence of gravity, larger particles will settle to the bottom and
can be separated from the liquid.
  df

Figure. Batch sedimentation results: (a) original uniform suspension,

(b) zones of settling after a given time,
(c) compression of zone D after zones B and C disappear,
(d) clear liquid interface height z versus time of settling.
1) sedimentation of FineParticles
Mechanism of sedimentation cont...particles

The smaller particles tend to be dragged downwards by the motion of

the large particles and are therefore accelerated.
The rate of sedimentation of a suspension of fine particles is difficult
to predict because of the following factors:
 The degree of agitation of the suspension
 The height of the suspension,
 The diameter of the containing vessel
 Mechanism of sedimentation cont...pa
If the ratio of the diameter of the vessel to the diameter of the particle is greater
than about 100, the walls of the container appear to have no effect on the rate
of sedimentation.
For smaller values, the sedimentation rate may be reduced because of the
retarding influence of the walls.
2) Sedimentation of Coarse Particles
If a significant size range of particles is present, the large particles are settling
relative to a suspension of smaller ones so that the effective density and viscosity
of the fluid are increased.
If the range of particle size is not more than about 6: 1, a concentrated suspension
settles with a sharp interface and all the particles fall at the same velocity.
  Determination of settling velocity
 Several attempts have been made to predict the apparent
settling velocity of a concentrated suspension.

 Includes
Rate of sedimentaion
 Stokes law

 Robinsons law

 Steinours law , etc

 The others were obtained by modification of stokes law.

Stokes law
 In sedimentation, particles are falling from rest under the
force of gravity,

 Therefore in sedimentation, it takes the familiar form of

Stokes' Law:

Vs = (- )
 Equipment's used for sedimentation
 There are two types of equipments which are used for sedimentation :

1) Thickeners

2) Clarifiers

 Thickeners and clarifiers are both used to separate liquids and solids by
settling thickeners are used to concentrate solids, while clarifiers are used to
purify liquids.

 Thickeners contain scraper where as clarifiers contain different

compartment
 The higher the concentration, the lower is the rate of fall
of the sludge line because

 The greater is the upward velocity of the displaced

fluid and the steeper are the velocity gradients in the
fluid.
 Applications of sedimentation:
Often used in the food industry for separating
 Dirt and debris from incoming raw material,
 Clarification of sugar juice by floculant
 Dust or product particles from air streams.

 Settling of solid food particles from a liquid food

 Settling of a slurry from a soybean leaching process
 water treatment:-purification methods such as filtration (e.g. slow sand
filtration) and disinfection (e.g. chlorination, ozonation).
 Starch Extaction
fluidization
 Fluidization

 Fluidization is defined as a method to keep solid

particles floating in an upward direction in a flow of
gas or liquid.

 In freezing, fluidization occurs when particles of a similar

shape and size are subjected to an upward stream of low-
temperature air.
 Types Of Fluidization

Particulate Fluidization:-
 When the fluidizing fluid is liquid and is
characterized by a large and uniform expansion of
the bed at high velocities, this is known as
particulate fluidization.
 Particulate fluidization is a condition when particles in
a fluidized bed are individually suspended.
 Types Of Fluidization

Aggregative fluidization:-

 The type of fluidization that occurs when the

fluid and solids have significantly different
densities,

 as occurs in gas/solid systems and some liquid/solid

systems.
 Advantage Of Fluidization
• The chief advantage of fluidization are that the solid is vigorously agitated by the fluid passing
through the bed, and the mixing of the solid ensures that there are practically no temperature
gradients in the bed even with quite exothermic or endothermic reactions.

• The smooth, liquid-like flow of particles allows continuous automatically controlled operations with
easy of handling.
•
• The rapid mixing of solids leads to nearly isothermal conditions

• throughout the reactor, hence the operation can be controlled simply and reliably.

• • It is suitable to large-scale operation.

Disadvantage of fluidization

• The main disadvantage of gas-solid fluidization is the uneven contacting of gas and
solid.
Erosion of vessel and pipes from abrasion by particles.

• Attrition of solids. Because of attrition, the size of the solid particles is getting
reduced
The rapid mixing of solids in the bed leads to non uniform in the reactor.