Lecture PowerPoints

Chapter 9
Physics: Principles with
Applications, 7th edition
Giancoli

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 Chapter 9
Static Equilibrium;
Elasticity and Fracture

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 Contents of Chapter 9

• The Conditions for Equilibrium

• Solving Statics Problems
• Applications to Muscles and Joints
• Stability and Balance
• Elasticity; Stress and Strain
• Fracture
• Spanning a Space: Arches and Domes

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 9-1 The Conditions for Equilibrium

An object with forces acting on it, but that is not

moving, is said to be in equilibrium.

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 9-1 The Conditions for Equilibrium

The first condition for

equilibrium is that the forces
along each coordinate axis
add to zero.

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 9-1 The Conditions for Equilibrium

The second condition of equilibrium is that there be no

torque around any axis; the choice of axis is arbitrary.

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 9-2 Solving Statics Problems

1. Choose one object at a time, and make a free-body

diagram showing all the forces on it and where they act.
2. Choose a coordinate system and resolve forces into
components.
3. Write equilibrium equations for the forces.
4. Choose any axis perpendicular to the plane of the forces
and write the torque equilibrium equation. A clever choice
here can simplify the problem enormously.
5. Solve.

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 9-2 Solving Statics Problems

The previous technique may not fully solve all statics

problems, but it is a good starting point.

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 9-2 Solving Statics Problems

If a force in your solution comes out negative (as FA will

here), it just means that it’s in the opposite direction
from the one you chose. This is trivial to fix, so don’t
worry about getting all the signs of the forces right
before you start solving.

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 9-2 Solving Statics Problems

If there is a cable or cord in the problem, it can support

forces only along its length. Forces perpendicular to that
would cause it to bend.

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 9-3 Applications to Muscles and Joints

These same principles can be used to understand forces

within the body.

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 9-3 Applications to Muscles and Joints

The angle at which this man’s back is bent places an

enormous force on the disks at the base of his spine, as
the lever arm for FM is so small.

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 9-4 Stability and Balance

If the forces on an object are such that they tend to return

it to its equilibrium position, it is said to be in stable
equilibrium.

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 9-4 Stability and Balance

If, however, the forces tend to move it away from its

equilibrium point, it is said to be in unstable equilibrium.

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 9-4 Stability and Balance

An object in stable equilibrium may become unstable if

it is tipped so that its center of gravity is outside the
pivot point. Of course, it will be stable again once it
lands!

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 9-4 Stability and Balance

People carrying heavy loads automatically adjust their

posture so their center of mass is over their feet. This can
lead to injury if the contortion is too great.

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 9-5 Elasticity; Stress and Strain

Hooke’s law: the change in length is proportional to the

applied force.

(9-3)

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 9-5 Elasticity; Stress and Strain

This proportionality holds until the force reaches the

proportional limit. Beyond that, the object will still
return to its original shape up to the elastic limit. Beyond
the elastic limit, the material is permanently deformed,
and it breaks at the breaking point.

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 9-5 Elasticity; Stress and Strain

The change in length of a stretched object depends not

only on the applied force, but also on its length and
cross-sectional area, and the material from which it is
made.
The material factor is called Young’s modulus, and it has
been measured for many materials.

The Young’s modulus is then the stress divided by the

strain.

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 9-5 Elasticity; Stress and Strain

In tensile stress, forces tend to stretch the object.

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 9-5 Elasticity; Stress and Strain

Compressional stress is exactly the opposite of tensional

stress. These columns are under compression.

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 9-5 Elasticity; Stress and Strain

Shear stress tends to deform an object:

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 9-6 Fracture

If the stress is too great, the object will fracture. The

ultimate strengths of materials under tensile stress,
compressional stress, and shear stress have been
measured.
When designing a structure,
it is a good idea to keep
anticipated stresses less
than 1/3 to 1/10 of the
ultimate strength.

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 9-6 Fracture

A horizontal beam will be under both tensile and

compressive stress due to its own weight.

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 9-6 Fracture

Here is the During

original design installation, it
of a walkway. was decided
The central that the long
supports were supports were
to be 14 too difficult to
meters long. install; the
walkways were
installed this
way instead.

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 9-6 Fracture
The change does not appear major until you look at the
forces on the bolts:
The net force on the pin in When modified, the net force
the original design is mg, on both pins together is still
upwards. mg, but the top pin has a force
of 2mg on it— enough to
cause it to fail, which it did.

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 9-7 Spanning a Space: Arches and Domes

The Romans developed the

semicircular arch about 2000
years ago. This allowed wider
spans to be built than could be
done with stone or brick
slabs.

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 9-7 Spanning a Space: Arches and Domes

The stones or bricks in a round arch are mainly under

compression, which tends to strengthen the structure.

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 9-7 Spanning a Space: Arches and Domes

Unfortunately, the horizontal

forces required for a
semicircular arch can become
quite large—this is why many
Gothic cathedrals have “flying
buttresses” to keep them from
collapsing.

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 9-7 Spanning a Space: Arches and Domes

Pointed arches can be built that require considerably less

horizontal force.

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 9-7 Spanning a Space: Arches and Domes

A dome is similar to an
arch, but spans a two-
dimensional space.

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 Summary of Chapter 9

• An object at rest is in equilibrium; the study of such

objects is called statics.
• In order for an object to be in equilibrium, there must
be no net force on it along any coordinate, and there
must be no net torque around any axis.
• An object in static equilibrium can be either in stable,
unstable, or neutral equilibrium.

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 Summary of Chapter 9

• Materials can be under compression, tension, or shear

stress.
• If the force is too great, the material will exceed its
elastic limit; if the force continues to increase the
material will fracture.

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