Composites ---------Some

Basic Considerations

Dr. Mallika Datta

Assistant Professor (TT)
GCETTS
October 2022
 What is a composite
material?

A composite material consists of one or more

discontinuous phases embedded in a continuous
phase with distinct interfaces. Each component
is to be present in reasonable proportions—
which according one estimate is greater than 5
%.
Constituents of a composite
material
There are 4 constituents :
i) Discontinuous Phase( Reinforcement) (e.g.
Fibres, Whiskers, Particles )
Role : To provide strength ,stiffness,
toughness to the composite
(e.g. glass, carbon, Kevlar, jute, kenaf,
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flax, hemp, boron etc.)
ii) Continuous Phase (Matrix)
(e.g. Polymers, Metals, Ceramics)

Role: a) To transfer stress to fibres

b) To provide barrier against adverse
environment
c) To protect fibre surface from abrasion
Matrix has only minor role in tensile load
carrying capacity of the composite.

( e. g. Unsaturated polymer, Epoxy, Vinyl Ester,

PP, HDPE, Nylon etc.)

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iii) Coupling Agents: Organofunctional
Silicon compounds
(e.g. Silanes, MGPP)

Role: a) To improve fibre-matrix interfacial

strength
b) To protect the interface from
environmental conditions such as
moisture.

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iv) Fillers & Additives:
(e.g. Calcium Carbonate, Hydrated
alumina, Hydroperoxy-benzotriazoles
etc.)
Role: a) To reduce cost
b) Increase stiffness
c) Reduce mould shrinkage
d) Control Viscosity
e) Impart fire-retardancy
f) Protection from UV rays
g) Processing aids.

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Classification of Composite
Materials
A. The first broad classification is based on
nature of matrix

i) Polymer Matrix
(most widely used & relevant to us)
ii) Metal Matrix
iii) Ceramic Matrix
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B. Polymer matrices are classified generally as

i) Thermoset Polymer Matrix

( USP, Epoxy, Vinyl Ester, Phenolics)

ii) Thermo Plastic Polymer Matrix

( PP,HDPE, Nylon etc.)

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Polymer matrices : Thermosetting and Thermoplastic.

THERMOSETS
Thermoset resins require addition of a curing agent or hardener and
impregnation onto a reinforcing material, followed by a curing step to produce a
cured or finished part. Once cured, the part cannot be changed or reformed,
except for finishing. Some of the more common thermosets include:

epoxies
polyurethanes
phenolic and amino resins
bismaleimides (BMI, polyimides)
polyamides

THERMOPLASTICS
They are typically supplied as nonreactive solids (no chemical reaction occurs
during processing) and require only heat and pressure to form the finished part.
Unlike the thermosets, the thermoplastics can usually be reheated and reformed
into another shape, if desired.
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C. Polymer composites can be further classified as

i) Non-Biodegradable –
(Glass/Polyester, Carbon/Epoxy)
ii) Partially Biodegradable
(Bio-Composites – Jute/Polyester,
Flax/Epoxy)
iii) Fully Biodegradable
(Green-Composites – Flax / PLA,
Jute/Starch, Jute/Shellac etc. )
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D. Classification Depending on
Geometry of Reinforcement
i) Unidirectional Continuous --- (Glass) Filament Winding

ii) Bi-directional Continuous ---Woven filament based

iii) Unidirectional Discontinuous --- Spun yarn based

iv) Bi-directional Discontinuous ---Woven spun yarn based

v) Random Discontinuous ---- Nonwoven fabric based

vi) Hybrid Composite --- Contains two types of

reinforcements (jute & glass)

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Advantages of Composite
Materials (Over Metals):

1. High specific stiffness and strength

compared to steel or aluminum (Weight
Saving & Lower Fuel consumption)
2. Lower energy requirement for production
by volume.

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 Why composite ?

1. Tensile strength of composites is four to six times greater than that of steel or
aluminium.
2. 30-45% lighter than aluminium structures designed to the same functional
requirements
3. Composites are less noisy while in operation and provide lower vibration
transmission than metals
4. Composites are more versatile than metals and can be tailored to meet
performance needs and complex design requirements---Tailor-made
5. Long life offers excellent fatigue, impact, environmental resistance and
reduce maintenance
6. Composites enjoy reduced life cycle cost compared to metals
7. Composites exhibit excellent corrosion resistance, and fire retardancy
8. Improved appearance with smooth surfaces and readily incorporable integral
decorative melamine are other characteristics of composites.
9. Composite parts can eliminate joints/fasteners, providing part,
simplification and integrated design compared to conventional metallic
parts----simplified the integrated design.

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 Market of Composite
Materials
More than 1.2 billion kilogram of composite material
is produced worldwide per annum

Major Areas of Application

are:
Automotive — 31%
Construction — 26%
Marine —12%
Electronic — 10%
Consumer Goods — 8%
Appliances — 8%
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Miscellaneous — 4%
 So many fibres; Which fibre to
choose for reinforcement?
Basic Premises:

Fibres are used as reinforcement of Polymer /

Plastics mainly to improve their response to forces
at low extension i.e. modulus. Other important
properties include strengths (flexural, tensile,
impact).

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 Assignment
• Name two fibres which can be excluded as
reinforcing fibre based on the basic
premises like ‘ high strength response at
low extension’----justify your answer.

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 Theory Of Fibre
Reinforcement And Critical
Fibre Length

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(i) For composites based on unidirectional continuous filaments

Strength & modulus are given by law of mixtures.

σc = σf vf + σm (1 – vf )
Ec = Ef vf + Em ( 1 – vf )
If the direction of force is not parallel to the fibres, the law of mixture
is modified
Ec = α Ef vf + Em (1 – vf )
(α = Efficiency factor or Krenchel factor having values of
0.3,0.5 and 1.0 for nonwoven, woven and unidirectional
fibres respectively.)

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(ii) For composites based on short and discontinuous fibres

⮚ Micromechanical analysis of such composites is complicated as only the

matrix is continuous and fibres are discontinuous and are not of uniform
length.
⮚ During process of fabrication like high shear injection / extrusion
moulding length reduction of fibres might take place.
⮚ Tensile stresses experienced by the resin is transferred to the fibre by
interfacial shear force which is highest at the fibre ends.
⮚ As “shear effect” builds up from the fibre ends, the tensile stress carried by
the fibre increases until it reaches a maximum at a distance, lc/2.
⮚ lc, the critical fibre length, is the minimum fibre length for a given fibre
diameter (d) which will allow tensile failure of the fibre rather than shear
failure at the interface.
⮚ lc/d, the critical aspect ratio is an equally important parameter in
determining the efficiency of reinforcement a minimum of 100 is desirable.
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⮚ Critical fibre length may be determined by considering a force balance in the
fibre when the fibre stress is σf.

Tensile force in fibre = σf πd2/4

Shear force at interface = Ƭπd lc/2
Equating the two quantities :
lc = σf d/2 Ƭ

Thus lc would be lower if Ƭ, the Inter Facial Shear Strength (IFSS) is high and the
fibre diameter (d) is low.

⮚ Thus, for efficient use of fibre properties one should either have fibres longer
than lc and / or improve IFSS to a level which brings down lc.

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⮚ When fibre length (l) is less than lc ( l < lc), the stress in the fibre (σf )
does not reach the breaking stress and composite failure takes place
through mechanisms like matrix failure and fibre pull-out.

⮚ When l ≥ lc, the stress in the fibre touches the breaking stress of the
fibre and composite failure might involve fibre fracture.

⮚ Fibre stress is calculated by the equation

σf = 2 Ƭl / d

and is dependant on fibre length, diameter & IFSS.

For practical purposes, it has been observed that fibre length should be
10 to 20 times longer than critical length.

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Effect of matrix deformation on strain around
a continuous and a short fibre in a
composite

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 Variation of tensile stress in a fibre
and shear stress at the interface of
a composite

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 Typical values of lc and
critical aspect ratio
Fibre Matrix Lc (mm) lc/d
Carbon Epoxy 0.2 35
Carbon Polycarbonate 0.7 105
Glass Polyester 0.5 40
Glass PP 1.8 140

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 Modulus / Strength – Component
Relationship For Short Fibre Reinforced
Composites
⮚ Mechanical performance of a composite is defined by the mechanical
properties of the constituents and by the microstructure. The morphology is
characterised by the main parameters – fibre length and fibre orientation.

⮚ Influence of these parameters on Yong’s Modulus (Ec) and Strength (σ c )

of the composite can be evaluated by a rule of mixture type of expression
as follows :
Yong’s Modulus = Ec= KLE KOE Ef Vf +Em (1– Vf )

KLE and KOE are length and orientation efficiency factors and can be
calculated if the length and orientation distributions in the composite are
known.

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⮚ Tensile strength is given by

σc = KLS KOS σf Vf + σm (1– Vf )

Where KLS and KOS are length and orientation

efficiency factors for calculation of strength.
KLS = 1 – lc/2l for l ≥ lc
and KLS = l/2lc for l < lc

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 Failure Mechanism Of
Composites
Failure of a short fibre reinforced composite under tension takes
place through events like

matrix yielding,

fibre debonding,

fibre pull out and

fibre fracture as shown in the following figure.

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 Failure events observed in short fibre reinforced
composites during tensile loading : (1)yielding of
matrix (2) fibre debonding (3) fibre debonding and
pull out (4) fibre fracture

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 MANUFACTURNG TECHNOLOGY

•Hand lay up
•Compression molding of polymers
•Resin transfer molding – RTM
•Injection moulding
•Filament winding

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Open Molding processes are those where the part being manufactured is
exposed to the atmosphere. The worker typically handles the part manually, and
there is a higher potential for exposure. The resin mixture may be a liquid being
formed onto a reinforcing material or it may be in the form of a prepreg material
being formed for final cure.

Closed Molding processes are those in which all or part of the manufacture
takes place in a closed vessel or chamber. The liquid resin mixture or prepreg
material may be handled or formed manually into the container for the curing
step. In the case of liquid resin mixtures, these may be pumped into the container,
usually a mold of some type, for the curing step. These processes usually have
less worker exposure potential, particularly if the entire process is closed.

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Compression molding   A technique for molding thermoset plastics in which a part
is shaped by placing the fiber and resin into an open mold cavity, closing the mold,
and applying heat and pressure until the material has cured or achieved its final
form.

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 Resin transfer molding is used when parts with two smooth surfaces
are required or when a low-pressure molding process is
advantageous. Fiber reinforcement fabric or mat is laid by hand into
a mold and resin mixture is poured or injected into the mold cavity.
The part is then cured under heat and pressure

RESIN TRANSFER MOULDING

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WET FILAMENT WINDING In the filament wet winding
process, continuous fiber reinforcement materials are drawn
through a container of resin mixture and formed onto a
rotating mandrel to achieve the desired shape. After winding,
the part is cured in an oven.
WET FILAMENT WINDING.

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 PULTRUSION.
In the pultrusion process, continuous roving strands are pulled
from a creel through a strand-tensioning device into a resin bath.
The coated strands are then passed through a heated die where
curing occurs. The continuous cured part, usually a rod or
similar shape, is then cut to the desired length

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INJECTION MOLDING.
Injection molding is also the most closed process. Thermoplastic granules
are fed via a hopper into a screw-like plasticating barrel where melting
occurs The melted plastic is injected into a heated mold where the part is
formed. This process is often fully automated.

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 Carbon-epoxy antenna dish with zero thermal
expansion

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