General psychology

Chapter one
Definition and concepts of Psychology
 Brainstorming

• What comes to your mind when you hear the word

psychology?
• Have you read or listened to anything related to
psychology?
• What was its content about?
• Did you appreciate it? Why?
• What do you expect from the course in psychology
 Objectives

At the end of the chapter the student is expected to:

• Define basic terms in the course;
• Explain the role of psychology as a means of
promoting human welfare;
• Relate major perspective of psychology with issues
it is concerned about;
• Differentiate the sub fields of psychology;
• Describe and evaluate major theoretical approaches
to psychology;
• Identify the main areas of research interest and
professional activities in psychology.
 Definition and concepts of Psychology

Psychology: is composed of two Greek words

Psyche: Soul, mind, consciousness
 Logos: Study, knowledge or science
 Thus, for those ancient Greek philosophers, psychology
was defined as the study of mind or soul.
 Scientifically, psychology is defined as the scientific
study of behavior and mental processes of both humans
beings and other animals.
 Cont……

Psychology studies behavior:

To make inferences about what the persons does &
process in his /her mind:
1.Overt behaviors (observed and measured directly).
2.Covert behaviors (mind or mental process such as
feelings, attitudes, thought etc.) are studied.
 Un like other behavioral sciences, Psychology exclusively
studies individual behavior and covers wide range of
behaviors.
 Cont…

Behavior in its broader sense includes all types of

human activities.
Example-
□ Motor activities (Walking, speaking)
□ Cognitive activities (perceiving, remembering,
thinking, reasoning)
□ Emotional activities (feeling happy, sad, angry,
afraid)
□ Behavior is both mental and bodily.
 Is psychology is science or an art?

Psychology is a science:
Psychologists like any other scientists do
experiments & follow scientific procedures to
understand & solve human problems.
Psychology is an art:
psychology focuses on the application of science to
prevent and control human problems.
i.e. Making life from worse to easy
 1.2. Goals of Psychology

1.Describing: is giving clear picture about the phenomena

or telling about what some thing is like.
2.Explaining: is all about suggesting possible reasons why
it/the behavior happened.
3.Predicting: Once we know what happens, and why it
happens, we can begin to speculate or predict what will
happen in the future.
4.Controlling: this is the last but the most goal of
psychology & refers to helping, limiting, influencing, and
changing the behavior.
 1.3. Historical roots of Psychology

Dear student, can you imagine how long has

psychology been around and where did it begin?
oPsychology as a science was established by Wilhelm Wundt
in 1879.
oHe was the first man to establish the first psychological
laboratory.
oPsychology begins as a science of mental life.
oWundt saw psychology as the study of conscious experience
or understanding mental process focusing on inner sensation,
feeling and thought.
 Cont……..

o He did this through introspection, asking the person to

describe what was going on in his/her mind.
o Until 1920 psychology remained as the science of mental
life. From 1920 to 1960 psychology refined as the
science of observable and measurable behavior by
American Psychologist Watson.
o After 1960’s Psychology considered studying both
mental process and outer behavior.
Cont……
 I. Early schools of Psychology

1. Structuralism
o Psychology studies about the structure/element of the
mind.
o founded by Wilhelm Wundt (founder of modern
psychology).
o He saw psychology as the study of conscious experience.
o He did this through introspection (asking the person to
describe what is doing in the mind).

Analyzing the mental experience into three basic mental

elements: images, feelings, and sensations
 Cont….

2.Functionalism
o William James pioneered functionalism
o Psychology studies about the function of the mind
o How the mind allows people to function in the real
world; how people work, play, and adapt to their
surroundings,
o More interested in how the mind functions and
emphasis on adaptive function of mind and behavior to
the changing environment.

o Examining human mind in terms of its structural

elements and functions.
 Cont…….

3 Gestalt psychology Max Wertheimer, who studied

sensation and perception.
Gestalt – “good figure” psychology.
□ Psychology should study about the whole mind
□ Gestalt ideas are now part of the study of cognitive
psychology, a field focusing not only on perception but
also on learning, memory, thought processes, and
problem solving
□ Instead of considering separate parts that make up
thinking, Gestalt psychologists concentrated on the
‘whole’.
 Cont…

o Human beings and other animals perceive the external

world as an organized pattern, not as individual
sensations.
o The motto of Gestalt psychologists is “The whole is
greater than the sum of its parts”.
I.e. Behavior should be studied as a whole than a separate
incidences.
□ Mind should be thought of as a result of the whole
pattern of sensory activity and the relationships and
organizations within their pattern.
 Cont….

4. Behaviorism
o Founded by Watson.
o Believed that Psychology should study not
subjective behavior rather observable and
measurable behaviors.
o The behaviorists also stressed the importance of
the environment in shaping an individual’s
behavior.
 Cont….

5. Psychoanalysis-
Sigmund Freud founded this school of thought.
o Psychology studies about the components of the
unconscious part of the human mind.
o Believed that behavior is determined by powerful inner
forces.
o Assumed that peoples repress some of their behaviors
which in turn causes personal disturbance.
□ some of the physical illnesses of his patients didn‘t
have medical or bodily causes; but non-physical or
emotional causes
 Cont…..

□ The unconscious which is the subject matter of

psychoanalysis contains hidden wishes, passions, guilty
secrets, unspeakable yearnings, and conflict between
desire and duty.
□ We are not aware of our unconscious urges and
thoughts and they make themselves known in dreams,
slip of the tongue, apparent accidents and even jokes.
□ He used clinical case studies (hypnosis and Dream
analysis) as a method.
 II. Modern Perspectives of Psychology

1. The Biological Perspective

• relate behavior to functions of the body such as
activities of their nervous and glandular systems.
2. The Cognitive Perspective
• we perceive the world around us and process
information differently.
• differences in the ways we receive and process
information may lead to differences in behavior.
 Cont….

3.The social perspective

• the interactions between and among people influence
mind and behavior.
• It is the social setting that determines an individual’s
behavior.
4. Developmental perspective
• behavior is changed as people grow older/ (mature)
i.e. behavior change due to age
 Cont….

5.Humanistic perspective
• human beings have free will (i.e. they are not under
the control of both internal & external factors).
• we can choose how to behave , rather than shaped by
d/t factors.
6. The Psychoanalytic perspective
• focuses on the role of feelings and impulses which are
unconscious.
7. Behaviorism
• all behavior is learned. (i.e rewarded behavior will
more likely to appear & un rewarded will terminate.
 Cont….

□ Socio-cultural Perspective- It focuses on the social

and cultural factors that affects human behavior.
□ As a fish cannot leave without water, human behavior
cannot be understood without sociocultural context
(the social and cultural environment) that people
"Swim" in every day.
□ For instance, social psychologists examine how group
membership affects attitudes and behaviors, why
authority and other people (like spouse, lovers,
friends, bosses, parents, and strangers) affect each of
us.
 1.4.Sub Fields (Branches) of Psychology

1. Clinical psychology: sub field, apply

psychotherapeutic techniques to diagnose
psychological disorders (i.e. hospitals, clinics…).
o do research on the causes of disorders, but they are not
physicians.
2. Counseling psychology: work on milder (simpler)
emotional and personal problems that we face in our
day today life .
o They administer tests to measure interests, aptitudes,
personal traits etc.
 Cont..

3.School and educational psychology: concerned with

the diagnosis of learning problems and remedy them.
4.Experimental psychology: do basic research to
discover and understand fundamental causes of
behavior .
5.Industrial & organizational psychology: They
apply psychology in industries and organization(use
of intelligence and aptitude tests ).
6.Social psychology: focused on how people’s behavior
or the society affects individual behavior.
 Cont….

7.Developmental psychology: work on

behavioral changes that occur in every stages
of development throughout life.
8. Psychobiology: interested in studying the
brain and how it works.
9.Personality psychology: Studies the enduring
psychological pattern of behavior, thought and
emotion.
 1.5. Research Methods in Psychology

• Psychologists acquire knowledge and understanding

about behavior using research.
• The scientific method involves the following steps;
1. Identifying the problem ( question of interest)
2. Formulation of hypothesis
3.Collecting data
4.Analyzing data
5.Conclusion, & draw recommendations
6.Communicating the finding
 Cont…..

Major research classifications in Psychology

□ Experimental method None experimental method

1. Correlation method
2. Naturalistic observation
3. Survey method
4. Case studies
5. Archival research
 General psychology

Chapter Two: Sensation and perception

 Brainstorming

□ Have you heard of sayings like „you watch but you

don't see‟; „you hear but you don't listen‟, „you
touch but you don't grasp…‟ What do these
statements suggest to you? Which one do you think
refers to sensation and which one refers to
perception?
 Objectives

At the end of the chapter the students are expected to:

□ How different is sensation from perception?
□ mention examples showing the difference between
sensation and perception?
□ Dictate laws of perception
 Definition and concepts of sensation and
perception

□ Sensation- the passive process of bringing information

from the outside world into the body and to the brain
□ process by which an organism responds to the stimulus
□ information.
□ The sensory laws: Sensory thresholds and sensory
adaption. There are certain sensory laws that explain
how sensation works.
□ Sensory threshold and sensory adaptation are the two
general laws of sensation.
 1. Sensory threshold

Sensory threshold is the minimum point of intensity a

stimulation can be detected
1)Absolute threshold-the minimum value of a stimulus
that must be present to be detected.
E.g., a 1 spoon of sugar may be detected in a cup of tea.
2) Difference threshold –
In addition to detecting the presence of a stimulus, you also
detect changes in the intensity of a stimulus.
the smallest level of added or reduced stimulation required
to sense that a change in stimulation has occurred.
-Or it is the minimum detectable difference between two
stimuli.
 Cont……

Sensory adaption- when stimulus is un changing,

receptors stop responding, this is known as sensory
adaptation.
Sensory overload- it refers to excessive stimulation that
can lead to fatigue and mental confusion.
E.g., you may go to super market to buy a phone, if d/t style
of phones are there, then you may be confused to select
& buy the best one among the d/t phones.
 Perception

□ Perception–cognitive process of selecting, organizing,

and interpreting the information brought to the brain by
the senses.
□ In the other ways, it is the acquisition, selection,
organization and interpretation of sensory
Perception, in general, consists of three basic
processes:
These are: Selection, organization, interpretation
1 Selection/attention
□ Select the stimuli to which we will attend
□ We perceive only a few of them clearly from a given
moment.
 Cont..

□ The selectivity of perception implies, among other

things, that our field of experience is divided into what
is known as ―Focus and ―Margin.
□ Events or stimuli that you perceive clearly are the
focus of your experience and other items or stimuli that
you perceive dimly or vaguely are in the margin of your
attention. You may be aware of items in the marginal
field but only vaguely or partially.
□ Factors affecting selectivity of perception
• Stimulus conditions: bigger and brighter, moving
• Psychological conditions: Set or expectancy and
motives or needs
 Cont……..

2-Organization-the process by which we structure

the input from our sensory receptors. (i.e., we
mentally arrange the information).
 Cont…….

3- Interpretation- explain and make judgments about the

external world for our life.

To measure our senses(i.e., how much stimulus is enough

to detect?) psychologists relay on threshold (the line
between not perceiving and perceiving).
Cont…..
 Form perception

Refers to the way sensations are organized into

meaningful shapes and patterns.
 Gestalt Psychologists were concerned with
meaningful patterns or wholes.
1.Figure–ground - the tendency to perceive objects,
or figures, as existing on a background.
2. Reversible figures - visual illusions in which the
figure and ground can be reversed
 The white and black stripes on these
Wine goblet or two faces zebras can be reversed – both can serve
looking each other? as either figure or ground
 Laws of perception

Similarity - the tendency to perceive things that look

similar to each other as being part of the same group.
Proximity - the tendency to perceive objects that are
close to each other as part of the same grouping.
Closure - the tendency to complete figures that are
incomplete.
Continuity - the tendency to perceive things as simply
as possible with a continuous pattern rather than with
a complex, broken-up pattern.
Contiguity- the tendency to perceive two things that
happen close together in time as being related.
Cont….
 Depth perception

□ Our remarkable ability to judge accurately how far objects

are from us or from each other is referred to as Depth or
Distance Perception.
□ To perform this remarkable accomplishment, we rely in
part on binocular cues- cues that require the use of two
eyes. One is convergence, the turning of the eyes inward,
which occurs when they focus on nearby object.
Monocular cues- cues that require the use of one eye.
 Chapter Three
LEARNING AND THEORIES OF LEARNING
Learning Outcomes
After you have studied this chapter, you will be able to:
 Explain the general meaning, types, and factors of learning

 Identify the characteristics of learning

 Describe some of the theories designed to explain the characteristics of

learning
Differentiate the viewpoints of different theories of learning.

Discuss the applications of theories of learning

 State techniques used to motivate and reinforce behavior.

 3.1.1. Definition of Learning

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior

occurring as a result of experience or practice.
 Definition (Contd)
The above definition emphasizes the following attributes of
learning:
 Learning is a change in behavior

 This change in behavior is relatively permanent

 It does not include change due to illness, fatigue,

maturation and use of intoxicant.

 This permanent change in behavior is not because of

biological factors (like hormonal changes) that bring

permanent changes in behavior; but because of
experience, or practice
 Learning is not directly observable but manifests in the

activities of the individual.

 3.1.2. Characteristics of Learning

 Learning is continuous modification of behavior

throughout life
 Learning is pervasive; it reaches into all aspects of human
life.
 Learning involves the whole person, socially, emotionally
&intellectually.
 Learning is often a change in the organization of
experiences.
 Learning is responsive to incentives
 Learning is an active process
 Learning is purposeful
 Learning depends on maturation, motivation and
practice.
 Learning is multifaceted
 3.1.3. Principles of Learning

□ Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally, and

emotionally ready to learn.
□ Students learn best and retain information longer when they have
meaningful practice and exercise
□ Learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or
satisfying feeling, and that learning is weakened when associated
with an unpleasant feeling.
□ Things learned first create a strong impression in the mind that is
difficult to erase.
□ Things most recently learned are best remembered.
□ The principle of intensity implies that a student will learn more
from the real thing than from a substitute.
□ Individuals must have some abilities and skills that may help them
to learn.
□ Things freely learned are best learned - the greater the freedom
enjoyed by individuals, the higher the intellectual and moral
advancement.
 3.2 Factors Influencing Learning

Motivation: The stronger & clearer the motives for learning,

the greater effort to learn. High motives of learning , you
become enthusiastic
Maturation: Neuro-muscular coordination
Health condition of the learner: Sensory defects,
malnutrition, toxic conditions of the body, loss of sleep and
fatigue hinder effective learning
Psychological wellbeing of the learner: worries, fears,
feelings of loneliness and inferiority hinders learning self-
respect, whereas self- reliance, and self-confidence are
necessary for effective learning
Good working conditions – absence or presence of fresh air,
light, comfortable surroundings, moderate temperature,
noise and learning aids
Background experiences: previously learned course
Length of the working period: periods should neither be too
short nor too long
Massed and distributed learning: reasonable time gaps
 3.3. Theories of Learning and their
Applications

There three major theories of learning

1. Behaviorist theory,
2. Social learning and
3. Cognitive learning
 3.3.1. Behavioral Theory of Learning

Occurs as a result of stimulus-response associations

emphasize observable behaviors,
seek laws to govern all organisms, and
provide explanations which focus on consequences
Behaviorists differ among themselves with respect to their
views about the role of reinforcement in learning
There are two major behavioral theories of learning
1.Classical Conditioning and
2.Operant Conditioning
 3.3.1.1 Classical conditioning theory

Classical conditioning focuses on the learning of involuntary

emotional or physiological responses to stimuli that normally
elicit no response

e.g. fear, increased heartbeat, salivation or sweating

Therefore, Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which

a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is
paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that
response
 Cont..

Basics of Classical Condition

Neutral stimulus: A stimulus that, before conditioning, does
not naturally bring about the response of interest

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally

brings about a particular response without having been
learned.

Unconditioned response (UCR): A response that is natural

and needs no training (e.g., salivation at the smell of food).
 Cont…

Basics of Classical Condition

Conditioned stimulus (CS): A once neutral stimulus that has
been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a
response formerly caused only by the unconditioned
stimulus

Conditioned response (CR): A response that, after

conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus
 Cont..

Hence, the theory of classical conditioning represents a

process in which a neutral stimulus, by pairing with a natural
stimulus, acquires all the characteristics of natural stimulus

It is also called substitution learning b/c it involves substituting

a neutral stimulus in place of natural stimulus

Let us consider Pavlov’s experiment (Summary)

 Summary of classical conditioning procedure

A. Before conditioning
Food (UCS) Salivation (UCR)
Bell (NS) No salivation

B. During conditioning
Bell + food Salivation
NS + UCS UCR

C. After conditioning
Bell Salivation
CS CR
Pavlov Experment
 Principles of Classical Condition

□ Extinction: presenting the CS repeatedly without the UCS

(meat), the CR will diminish and eventually stop
□ Spontaneous recovery is the reemergence of an extinguished
conditioned response after extinction
□ Stimulus generalization is a process in which, after a
stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular
response, stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus begin
to produce the same responses
□ Stimulus discrimination is the process of distinguishing two
similar stimuli; the ability to differentiate between stimuli
 Application
□ Classical conditioning provides explanations for many of our
phobias (irrational or unreasonable fears); for example
Developing fear of a doctor (hospital) because of painful
experiences by needle.
Developing fear of a car (driving) after having been in an
automobile accident.
Developing fear of fear of dogs after having been bitten by
one dog.
 To develop good habits or positive attitude,
 Used in psychotherapy, to eliminate conditioned fears
(phobias) and to break bad habits (by counter
conditioning)
 3.3.1.2. Operant/Instrumental conditioning

Operant conditioning is learning in which a voluntary response

is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or
unfavorable consequences
It is a form of association learning in which the
consequences of behavior produce changes in the
probability of the behavior’s occurrence
Also known as instrumental conditioning
In operant conditioning, the organism's response operates on
the environment and the environment, in turn, operates the
organism's response
 Basic Operations

As Skinner‘s analysis, a response (operant) can lead to three types of

consequences
1) A neutral consequence 2) A reinforcement or 3) punishment
1. A neutral Consequence that does not alter the response
2. A reinforcement that strengthens the response by a reinforcer

A reinforcer is any event that increases the probability that the behavior
that precedes it will be repeated
There are two basic types of reinforcers
 Primary reinforcers: Food, water, light, stroking of the skin, and a
comfortable air temperature
 Secondary Reinforcers: . Money, praise, applause, good grades, awards,
and gold stars
 Cont…
Both primary and secondary reinforcers can be positive or
negative
□ Positive reinforcement is the process whereby
presentation of a stimulus makes behavior more likely to
occur again
□ Negative reinforcement is the process whereby
elimination of an aversive stimulus makes behavior more
likely to occur
For e.g., if someone nags you all the time to study, but stops
nagging when you comply, your studying is likely to
increase- e.g. escape learning, avoidance Learning
 Schedules of reinforcement

Schedules of reinforcement
A response can be reinforced each time it occurs- a procedure
as continuous reinforcement or once a response has
become reliable reinforcing only some responses, not all of
them, a procedure called intermittent (partial) schedule of
reinforcement

There are four types of intermittent schedules

 Cont…
1. Fixed-ratio schedules: reinforcing a response after a fixed
number of responses.
2. Variable-Ratio Schedule: reinforcing a response after
some average number of responses, but with varying from
reinforcement to reinforcement
3. Fixed Interval Schedule: reinforcing a response only after
a fixed amount of time has passed
4. Variable Interval Schedule: reinforcing a response only
after a variable amount of time has passed
 cont

3. Punishment- is a stimulus that weakens the response or

makes it less likely to recur
It is an undesirable event that follows a behavior it intends to
reduce/ weaken
Punishers can also be primary or secondary
primary punishers: Pain and extreme heat or cold
Secondary punishers: Criticism, demerits, catcalls, scolding,
fines, and bad grades
The pros and cons of punishment
 Immediacy –punishment follows immediately after the
behavior to be punished
 Consistency- using punishment evenly/steadily
 Intensity- use severe punishments
When punishment fails:
administering punishment inappropriately or mindlessly

recipient of punishment often responds with anxiety, fear or

rage
depending heavily on the presence of the punishing person or
circumstances
hard to punish immediately

Punishment conveys little information - instead of punishing it

may be reinforcing because it brings attention
Shaping: an operant conditioning procedure in which
successive approximations of a desired response are
reinforced
It is establishing novel behaviors by reinforcing responses that
gradually approach the behavior that is desired
 Application of operant conditioning

□ Conditioning study behavior: arranging effective

contingencies of reinforcement, e.g., for Self-learning
reinforcing a student using incentives
Conditioning and classroom behavior: acquiring unpleasant
experience which becomes conditioned to the teacher,
subject and the classroom and students begin to dislike the
subject and the teacher.
Managing Behavioral Problem : used as therapy to shape
students’ behavior by admitting positive contingencies like
praise
Dealing with anxieties through conditioning: used to break
fear habits using desensitization technique
Conditioning group behavior: reinforcement breaks undesired
and antisocial behavior of a group
 Application….

Conditioning and Cognitive Processes: to bring a progress of

knowledge, reinforcing in the feedback form
Shaping Complex Behavior: Controlling complex behavior
that exist in the form of a chain of small behaviors
 3.3.2. Social Learning Theory (observational
learning)theory

A tendency for individuals to reproduce the actions, attitudes

or emotional responses displayed by real life or symbolized
models
As Bandura, three forms of reinforcement can encourage
observational learning
direct reinforcement
vicarious reinforcement
self-reinforcement
 Processes of Social learning

Bandura mentions four conditions that are necessary in the

processes of observational learning
1.Attention: paying attention to the model
2.Retention: encoding and storing of observed behavior in
memory.
3.Motor reproduction: replicating the observed behavior
4.Motivation: motivation; the desire to demonstrate (perform)
the learned behavior frequently.
 Implication of Social Learning
 learn a great deal simply by observing other people
 Describing the consequences of behavior to increase
appropriate behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones
 Provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors
 Taking care to model appropriate behaviors but not
inappropriate behaviors
 To break down traditional stereotypes, exposing students to a
variety of other models.
 To develop a sense of self-efficacy - believe that someone is
capable of accomplishing school tasks
 To set realistic expectations for academic accomplishments
 Helps to improve elf-regulation behavior
 3.3.3. Cognitive Learning Theory

Human beings, unlike the rat and the rabbit, are full of attitudes,
beliefs and expectations that affect the way they acquire
information, make decisions, reason, and solve problems
These mental processes affect individuals’ behavior and
personality
These theory deals with the mental mechanisms that
mediate the processing of information in some meaningful
fashion.
It extends into the realms of memory, thinking, problem
solving and the use of language
 Forms of cognitive learning
Examples:
□ Latent learning - a hidden form of learning in which a
behavior is not manifested for the time being but it might
appear when situations are favorable
It involves changes in the way information is processed and
occurs without reinforcement and responses
□ Insight learning - a sudden change in our perception that
comes while encounter and struggle with life challenging
problem
It doesn‘t depend on conditioning of particular behaviors for its
occurrence
CHAPTER 4 – MEMORY AND FORGETTING

Learning Outcomes
 At the end of this unit, students will be able to:
− Define memory and forgetting.
− Describe the stages and memory structures proposed by
theory of memory.
− Explain the processes that are at work in memory
functions.
− Identify how learned materials are organized in the long
term memory.
− State the factors underlying on the persistence, and loss
of memory.
− Explain different theories of forgetting
 4.1. Memory

4.1.1. Meaning and Processes of Memory

 Memory is the retention of information/what

is learned earlier over time.

 It is the way in which we record the past for later use in

the present.
 Memory is a blanket label for a large number of

processes that form the bridges between our past and our
present.
 To learn about the nature of memory, it is useful to

separate the process from the structure.

Processes of Memory

□Memory processes are the mental activities we

perform to put information into memory, to
keep it there, and to make use of it later. This
involves three basic steps: Encoding, Storing
and Retrieval
 Processes of Memory…

a) Encoding: It is the process by which information is

initially recorded in a form usable to memory.
b) Storage: The process of maintaining information in a
particular stage. Storage is the persistence of
information in memory.
c) Retrieval: The process of bringing stored information
from memory storage. In retrieval, material in memory
storage is located, brought into awareness and used.
 Memory is the process by which information is encoded (phase1), stored
(phase 2) and later retrieved (phase 3).
 4.1.2. Stages/Structure of Memory
□ According to Atkinson and Shiffrin, memory has three
structures:
1) Sensory Memory/Sensory Register: It is the entry way to
memory.
 It can hold virtually all the information reaching our senses for a brief
time.
 The information stored sensory in memory is a fairly accurate
representation/replica of the environmental information but
unprocessed.
 Most information briefly held in the sensory memory simply decays from
the register. However, some of the information that has got attention and
recognition pass on short-term memory for further processing.
4.1.2. Stages/Structure of Memory….contd

2) Short-term Memory: is part of our memory that

holds the contents of our attention.
 Unlike SM, STMs are not brief replicas of the
environmental message.
 STM is important in a variety of tasks such as
thinking, reading, speaking, and problem
solving.
 STM is also referred as - working memory,
immediate memory, active memory, and primary
memory
 4.1.2. Stages/Structure of Memory….contd

□ Short term memory is distinguished by four characteristics:

a) It is active- information remains in STM only so long as the person
is consciously processing
b)Rapid accessibility - Information in STM is readily available for use.
c) Preserves the temporal sequence of information- STM usually
helps us to maintain the information in sequential manner for a
temporary period of time.
d)Limited capacity- George Miller (1956) estimated the capacity of
STM to be ―the magic number 7 plus or minus 2.
a) We could overcome this problem, by chunking
b) STM memory holds information for up to about 30 seconds. It
is possible to prolong STM indefinitely by rehearsal- the
conscious repetition of information.
 4.1.2. Stages/Structure of Memory….contd

3. Long Term Memory: It is a memory system

used for the relatively permanent storage of
meaningful information.
 The capacity of LTM seems to have no practical
limits.
 LTM stores information for indefinite periods. It
may last for days, months, years, or even a lifetime.
 4.1.2. Stages/Structure of Memory….contd

□ The LTM is assumed to be composed of different sub

systems/types:
A.Declarative/explicit memory- the conscious recollection of
information such as specific facts or events that can be
verbally communicated. It is further subdivided into semantic
and episodic memories.
 Semantic memory- factual knowledge like the meaning
of words, concepts and our ability to do math.
 Episodic memory- memories for events and situations
from personal experience.
B.Non-declarative/ implicit memory- accessed without
consciousness or implicitly through performance rather than
recollection.
Serial Position Effect

□ The three-box model of memory is often invoked

to explain interesting phenomenon called the serial
position effect….retention of any particular item
will depend on its position in the list.
 That is, recall will be best for items at the

beginning of the list (the primacy effect) and at the

end of the list (the recency effect). When retention
of all the items is plotted, the result will be a U-
shaped curve.
 Serial Position Effect…

According to the three-box model,

The first few items on a list are remembered well because short-
term memory was relatively ―empty when they entered, so these
items did not have to compete with others to make it into long term
memory. They were thoroughly processed, so they remain
memorable.

The last few items are remembered for a different reason: At the
time of recall, they are still sitting in STM.
The items in the middle of the list, however, are not so well
retained because by the time they get into short-term memory, it is
already crowded. As a result many of these items drop out of short-
term memory before they can be stored in long-term memory .
4.1.3. Factors Affecting Memory
□ Eleven Factors that Influence Memory Process in Humans are as follows:
a. Ability to retain: This depends upon good memory traces left in the brain by
past experiences.
b. Good health: A person with good health can retain the learnt material better
than a person with poor health.
c. Age of the learner: Youngsters can remember better than the aged.
d. Maturity: Very young children cannot retain and remember complex material.
e. Will to remember: Willingness to remember helps for better retention.
f. Intelligence: More intelligent person will have better memory than a dull
person,
g. Interest: If a person has more interest, he will learn and retain better.
h. Over learning: Experiments have proved that over learning will lead to better
memory.
i. Speed of learning: Quicker learning leads to better retention,
j. Meaningfulness of the material: Meaningful materials remain in our
memory for longer period than for nonsense material
k. Sleep or rest: Sleep or rest immediately after learning strengthens connections
in the brain and helps for clear memory.
4.2. Forgetting

4.2.1 Meaning and Concepts of Forgetting

□ Forgetting - the apparent loss of information already encoded
and stored in the long-term memory.
□ The first attempts to study forgetting were made by German
psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885/1913). Using
himself as his only subject, he memorized lists of three letter
non-sense syllables- meaningless sets of two consonants with
a vowel in between, such as FIW and BOZ.
 He found that the most rapid forgetting occurs in the first

nine hours of learning, and particularly in the first hour.

After nine hours, the rate of forgetting slows and declines
little, even after the passage of many days.
 There is almost always a strong initial decline in memory,

followed by a more gradual drop over time.

 4.2.2. Theories of Forgetting
4.2.2.1.The Decay Theory
 The decay theory holds that memory traces or

engram fade with time if they are not ―accessed

now and then.
 Decay occurs in SM & STM, unless we rehearse the

material. However, the mere passage of time does

not account so well for forgetting in long-term
memory.
 Although there is evidence that decay does occur, it

does not seem to be the complete explanation for

forgetting.
4.2.2. Theories of Forgetting…. contd

4.2.2.2. Interference
 Interference theory holds that forgetting occurs

because similar items of information interfere

with one another
 There are two kinds of interference that influence

forgetting:
 Proactive Interference, information learned
earlier interferes with recall of newer material.
 Retroactive Interference, new information
interferes with the ability to remember old
information
4.2.2. Theories of Forgetting…. contd

4.2.2.3. New Memory for Old/ Displacement Theory

□This theory holds that new information
entering memory can wipe out old information
 This theory is mostly associated with the STM,
where the capacity for information is limited to
seven plus or minus chunks.
 It cannot be associated with the LTM because of its
virtually unlimited capacity.
 4.2.2. Theories of Forgetting…. contd

4.2.2.4. Motivated Forgetting/Repression

 Freud- forgetting occurs because people block from

consciousness those memories that are too threatening

or painful to live with
4.2.2.5. Cue Dependent Forgetting
 Cues that were present during initial stage of learning,

help us to recall the content of the specific learning

materials in an easy manner. And Lack of this retrieval
cues could result in forgetting.
 In long-term memory, this type of memory failure may

be the most common type of all.

 Remembering is often easier when you are in the
same physical environment/ mental state as you were
when an event occurred
 4.3. Improving Memory

□ Pay Attention
□ Encode information in more than one way: The more elaborate the
encoding of information, the more memorable it will be
□ Add meaning: The more meaningful the material, the more likely it is to
link up with information already in long-term memory.
□ Take your time: If possible, minimize interference by using study breaks
for rest or recreation. Sleep is the ultimate way to reduce interference.
□ Over learn: Studying information even after you think you already know
it- is one of the best ways to ensure that you‘ll remember it.
□ Monitor your learning: By testing yourself frequently, rehearsing
thoroughly, and reviewing periodically, you will have a better idea of
how you are doing
 CHAPTER FIVE - MOTIVATION AND
EMOTIONS

□ Learning Outcomes
After successful completion of this
chapter, students are expected to:
− Define what motivation is

− Identify the two types of motivation

− Compare the different theories of motivation

− Explain the different types of conflicts of

motives
− Define what emotion is

− Discuss the three elements of emotion

− Discuss the different theories of emotion

 5.1. Motivation

5.1.1. Definition and types of motivation

□ Motivation is a factor by which activities are started,
directed and continued so that physical or psychological
needs or wants are met.
 The word itself comes from the Latin word ‘Movere‘, which means ―to
move.
 Motivation is what moves people to do the things they do.
□ There are different types of motivation. But, it is possible to categorize
them into two:-
 Intrinsic motivation -is a type of motivation in which a person acts because
the act itself is rewarding or satisfying in some internal manner.
 Extrinsic motivation -is a type of motivation in which individuals act
because the action leads to an outcome that is external to a person
 5.1.2. Approaches to motivation (theories of
motivation)
a) Instinct approaches to motivation
 people are motivated to engage in certain behaviors
because of evolutionary programming
 Just as animals are governed by their instincts to do things such
as migrating, nest building, mating and protecting their territory,
human beings may also be governed by similar instincts.
 Some instincts in humans including curiosity, flight (running
away), pugnacity (aggressiveness), and acquisition (gathering
possessions).
 5.1.2. Approaches to motivation (theories of motivation)…
cotd

b) Drive reduction theory

 asserted that behavior is motivated by the desire to reduce
internal tension caused by unmet biological needs, such as
hunger or thirst.
 Drives are of two kinds; primary and secondary.
 One important advance upon the idea of drive reduction is
the concept of homeostasis - that we are motivated to seek
a state of equilibrium
 drive-reduction theory does not explain all human
motivation. People do not always seek to reduce their inner
arousal
5.1.2. Approaches to motivation (theories of motivation)…cotd

c) Arousal approaches: beyond drive reduction

 According to arousal approaches to motivation, each
person tries to maintain a certain level of stimulation and
activity.
 Arousal approaches seek to explain behavior in which the
goal is to maintain or increase
excitement.
d) Incentive approaches: motivation’s pull
 Incentive approaches to motivation suggest that motivation
stems from the desire to attain external rewards, known as
incentives.
 In this view, the desirable properties of external: like
grades, money, affection, or sex —account for a person‘s
motivation.
 5.1.2. Approaches to motivation (theories of motivation)…
cotd

e) Cognitive Approaches: the thoughts behind motivation

 suggest that motivation is a result of people‘s thoughts,
beliefs, expectations, and goals.
 For instance, the degree to which people are motivated to study for a test
is based on their expectation of how well studying will pay off in terms
of a good grade.
 Cognitive theories of motivation draw a key difference
between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
 Intrinsic motivation causes us to participate in an activity for our
enjoyment rather than for any actual or concrete reward that it will bring
us.
 In contrast, extrinsic motivation causes us to do something for money, a
grade, or some other actual, concrete reward
5.1.2. Approaches to motivation (theories of motivation)…cotd

f) Humanistic approaches to motivation

 is based on the work of Abraham Maslow.

 human behavior is influenced by a hierarchy of five classes of needs,

or motives.
1. Physiological needs- these are biological requirements for human
survival, e.g. air, food, drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, sleep.
2. Safety needs- protection from elements, security, order, law, stability,
freedom from fear.
3. Love and belongingness needs- need for friendship, intimacy,
receiving and giving affection and love.
4. Esteem needs- the need to be respected as a useful, honorable
individual
5. Self-actualization needs- realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment,
seeking personal growth and peak experiences. A desire ―to become
everything one is capable of becoming
5.1.3. Conflict of motives and frustration

□ There are four basic types of motivational conflicts.

 Approach-approach conflicts - exist when we must choose only
one of the two desirable activities. Example, going to a movie or a
concert.
 Avoidance-avoidance conflicts - arise when we must select one of
two undesirable alternatives. Eg. Someone forced either to sell the
family home or to declare bankruptcy.
 Approach-avoidance conflicts - happen when a particular event or
activity has both attractive and unattractive features.
 Multiple approach-avoidance conflicts - exist when two or more
alternatives each have both positive and negative features.
5.2. Emotions
5.2.1. Definition of emotion
 Emotion can be defined as the ―feeling aspect of
consciousness, characterized by certain physical arousal,
certain behavior that reveals the feeling to the outside
world, and an inner awareness of feelings.
 Thus, from this short definition, we can understand that
there are three elements of emotion:
a) the physiology,
b) behavior and
c) subjective experience.
Elements/components of emotion…
1) The physiology of emotion - when a person experiences an emotion, there is
physical arousal created by the sympathetic nervous system.
− The heart rate increases, breathing becomes more rapid, the pupils of the
eye dilate, and the moth may become dry.
2) The behavior of emotion- tells us how people behave in the grip of an
emotion.
− There are facial expressions, body movements, and actions that indicate to
others how a person feels. Frowns, smiles, and sad expressions combine
with hand gestures, the turning of one‘s body, and spoken words to produce
an understanding of emotion.
3) Subjective experience or labeling emotion is the third component of emotion
and it involves interpreting the subjective feeling by giving it a label: anger,
fear, disgust, happiness, sadness, shame, interest, surprise and so on.
5.2.2. Theories of emotion

I. James- Lang Theory of Emotion

 States that emotional experience is reaction to
instinctive bodily events that occur as a response
to some situation or event in the environment
 James and Lang believed that physical arousal led to
the labeling of the emotion (fear).
 Simply put, “I am afraid because I am aroused,‖or ―I
am embarrassed because my face is red” etc
 5.2.2. Theories of emotion….contd

II. Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

 theorized that the emotion and the physiological
arousal occur more or less at the same time.
 an emotion - arousing stimulus simultaneously
triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the
subjective experience of emotion..
 5.2.2. Theories of emotion….contd
III. Schechter-Singer and Cognitive Arousal
Theory
 Schachter-Singer (1962) proposed that two things
have to happen before emotion occurs: the physical
arousal and labeling of the arousal based on cues
from the surrounding environment.
 Summary of emotion theories

By Kora Tushune. Network matchmaking-Brussels, January 2016

CHAPTER SIX: PERSONALITY
 Course outcome
 Learning Outcomes After completion of this chapter, you will be
able to:
 Define personality

 Discuss the natures of psychoanalytic theory

 Identify the structures of personality

 Explain psychological defense mechanisms

 Explain the essence of the trait theory of personality  Discuss

the five factor model of personality
 Explain the essence of humanistic theory of personality

108
6.1. Meaning of Personality

 Personality is the unique pattern of enduring

thoughts, feelings, and actions that characterize a
person.

 Personality should not be confused with character.

 Character refers to value judgments made about a

person‘s morals or ethical behavior.

109
CHAPTER SIX : PERSONALITY…..

Temperament: the enduring characteristics with which each

person is born, such as irritability or adaptability.

However, both character and temperament are vital

personalities.

110
6.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
 Though there are different theories of personality.

 Some of the theories of personality are: psychodynamic, trait,

and humanistic.

6.2.1. The psychoanalytic theory of personality

 The psychoanalytic theory was formulated by the Austrian

physician named Sigmund Freud.
111
6.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY ….
 According to Freud, personality is formed within ourselves,
arising from basic inborn needs, drives, and characteristics.

 He argued that people are in constant conflict between their

biological urges (drives) and the need to tame them.

112
6.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY ….
 The psychoanalytic theory includes a theory of personality
structure.

 In Freud's view, personality has three parts which serves a

different function and develops at different times: the id, the
ego, and the superego.

 According to Freud, the way these three parts of personality

interact with one another determines the personality of an
individual.
113
6.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY ….
 Id: If It Feels Good, Do It- The first and most primitive part
of the personality in the infant is the id.
 The id is a completely unconscious amoral part of the
personality that exists at birth, containing all of the basic
biological drives; hunger, thirst, sex, aggression.

114
6.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY ….
 When these drives are active, the person will feel an increase in
not only physical tension but also in psychological tension that
Freud called libido.

 Libido is the instinctual energy that may come into conflict with
the demands a society‘s standards for behavior.
 When libidinal energy is high, it is unpleasant for the person, so
the goal is to reduce libido by fulfilling the drive; Eat when
hungry, drink when thirsty, and satisfy the sex when the need for
pleasure is present.

115
6.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY ….
 Freud called this need for satisfaction the pleasure principle,
which can be defined as the desire for immediate satisfaction of
needs with no regard for the consequences.

 The pleasure principle can be summed up simply as ―if it feels

good, do it.

116
6.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY ….
 Ego: The Executive Director- deal with reality

 The ego, is mostly conscious and is far more rational, logical

and cunning than the id.

 The ego works on the reality principle, which is the need to

satisfy the demands of the id and reduce libido only in ways that
will not lead to negative consequences.

117
6.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY ….
 Superego: The Moral Watchdog- the moral center of
personality.

 The superego develops as a preschool-aged child learns the

rules, customs, and expectations of society.

 There are two parts to the superego: the ego ideal and the
conscience. The ego-ideal is a kind of measuring device.
118
6.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY ….
 Ego ideal is the sum of all the ideal or correct and acceptable
behavior that the child has learned about from parents and
others in the society.

 All behavior is held up to this standard and judged by the

conscience.

 The conscience is part of the personality that makes people

pride when they do the right thing and guilt, or moral anxiety
when they do the wrong thing.
119
6.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY ….
 According to Freud, our personality is the outcome of the
continual battle for dominance among the id, the ego, and the
superego.

 This constant conflict between them is managed by

psychological defense mechanisms.

 Defense mechanisms are unconscious tactics that either prevent

threatening material from surfacing or disguise it when it does.

120
6.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY ….
 1). Repression is a defense mechanism that involves banishing
threatening thoughts, feelings, and memories into the
unconscious mind.

 Example: an Ethiopian husband who is defeated by his wife will

not remember/ talk it out again.

 2). Denial: is refusal to recognize or acknowledge a

threatening situation.

 Example; Mr. Geremew is an alcoholic who denies/ doesn‘t

121
accept being an alcoholic.
6.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY ….
 3). Regression: involves reverting to immature behaviors that
have relieved anxiety in the past.

 Example: a girl/a boy who has just entered school may go back
to sucking her/his thumb or wetting the bed.

 4). Rationalization: giving socially acceptable reasons for

one's inappropriate behavior.

 Example: make bad grades but states the reason as being

knowledge rather than grade oriented; and grades only showing
122
superficial learning.
6.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY ….
 5). Displacement: the defense mechanism that involves
expressing feelings toward a person who is less threatening
than the person who is the true target of those feelings.

 Example: Hating your boss but taking it out on family members.

 6). Projection: the defense mechanism that involves attributing

one's undesirable feelings to other people.

 Example: a paranoid person uses projection to justify isolation

and anger.

123
6.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY ….
 7). Reaction formation: a defense mechanism that involves a
tendency to act in a manner opposite to one's true feelings.

 Example: a person who acts conservation but focuses on

violence in their behavior.

 8). Sublimation: defense mechanism that involves expressing

sexual or aggressive behavior through indirect, socially
acceptable outlets.

 Example: an aggressive person who loves playing football.

124
6.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY ….
 Our use of defense mechanisms is not considered as
inappropriate or unhealthy unless we rely on them to an
extreme level.

 Remember that all of us use defense mechanisms to manage

our conflict and stress.

 It may not be possible to get through life without such defenses.

 But, excessive use may create more stress than it alleviates.

125
6.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY ….
6.2.2. The trait theory of personality

 Psychologists who take the trait approach see personality as a

combination of stable internal characteristics that people
display consistently over time and across situations.

 Trait theorists seek to measure the relative strength of the many

personality characteristics that they believe are present in
everyone.

126
6.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY ….
 The trait approach to personality makes three main
assumptions:

 1. Personality traits are relatively stable, and therefore

predictable, over time. So a gentle person tends to stay the
same way across time.

127
6.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY ….
 2. Personality traits are relatively stable across situations,
and they can explain why people act in predictable ways in
many different situations.

 3. People differ in how much of a particular personality trait

they possess; no two people are exactly alike on all traits. The
result is an endless variety of unique personalities.

128
6.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY ….
 Though the history of the trait theory of personality has come
through different stages, our attention here will be paid on the
five-factor model or the Big Five theory.

 The five trait dimensions can be remembered by using the

acronym OCEAN, in which each of the letters is the first letter
of one of the five dimensions of personality.

129
6.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY ….
 Openness: can best be described as a person‘s willingness to
try new things and be open to new experiences.

 People who try to maintain the status quo and who don‘t like to
change things would score less on openness.

130
6.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY ….
 Conscientiousness refers to a person‘s organization and
motivation, with people who score high in the dimension being
those who are careful about being in places on time and careful
with belongings as well.

 Someone scoring low on this dimension, for example, might

always be late to important social events or borrow belongings
and fail to return them or return in poor coordination.

131
6.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY ….
 Extraversion: is a term first used by Carl Jung, who believed
that all people could be divided into two personality types:
extraverts and introverts.

 Extraverts are outgoing and sociable, whereas introverts are

more solitary and dislike being the center of attention.

 Agreeableness: refers to the basic emotional style of a person,

who may be easygoing, friendly and pleasant (at the high end
of the scale) or grumpy, crabby and hard to get along with (at the
low end).
132
6.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY ….
 Neuroticism: refers to emotional instability or stability.
 People who are excessively worried, overanxious and moody
would score high on this dimension, whereas those who are
more even-tempered and calm could score low.

133
6.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY ….
6.2.3. Humanistic theory of personality
Emphasize people‘s inherent goodness and their tendency to
move toward higher levels of functioning .

It is this conscious, self-motivated ability to change and

improve, along with people‘s unique creative impulses, that
humanistic theorists argue make up the core of personality.

134
6.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY ….
 Carl Rogers believed that human beings are always striving to
fulfill their innate capacities and capabilities and to become
everything that their genetic potential will allow them to become.

 This striving for fulfillment is called self-actualizing tendency.

 An important tool in human self-actualization is the development

of an image of oneself or the self-concept.

135
6.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY ….
 The self-concept is based on what people are told by others and how
the sense of self is reflected in the words and actions of important
people in one‘s life, such as parents, siblings, coworkers, friends,
and teachers.

 Real and Ideal Self - Two important components of the self-concept

are:

 1). the real self (one‘s actual perception of characteristics, traits, and
abilities that form the basis of the striving for self-actualization)

 2). the ideal self (the perception of what one should be or would like
to be).
136
6.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY ….
 The ideal self primarily comes from those important, significant
others in one‘s life, most often the parents.

 Rogers believed that when the real self and the ideal self are
very close or similar to each other, people feel competent and
capable, but when there is a mismatch between the real and ideal
selves, anxiety and neurotic behavior can be the result.

 The two halves of the self are more likely to match if they aren‘t
that far apart at the start.
137
6.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY ….
 When one has a realistic view of the real self, and the ideal self
is attainable, there usually isn‘t a problem of a mismatch.

 It is when a person‘s view of self is distorted or the ideal self is

impossible to attain that problems arise.

138
6.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY ….
 Conditional and Unconditional Positive Regard- Rogers
defined positive regard as warmth, affection, love, and respect
that comes from the significant others (parents, admired adults,
friends, and teachers) in people‘s experience.

 Positive is vital to people‘s ability to cope with stress and to

strive to achieve self-actualization.

 Rogers believed that unconditioned positive regard, or love,

affection and respect with no strings attached, is necessary for
people to be able to explore fully all that they can achieve and
become. 139
6.2. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY ….
 Although self-actualization and to be fully functioning‘ are
highly related concepts, there are some subtle differences.

 Self-actualization is a goal that people are always striving to

reach, according to Maslow (1987).

 In Rogers's view, only a person who is fully functioning is

capable of reaching the goal of self-actualization.

 To be fully functioning is a necessary step in the process of self-

actualization.

140
CHAPTER SIX PERSONALITY
 Maslow (1987) listed several people that he considered to be
self-actualized people: Albert Einstein, Mahatma Gandhi, Nelson
Mandela and Eleanor Roosevelt.

 These were people that Maslow found to have the self-actualized

qualities of being creative, autonomous and unprejudiced, for
example.

 In Roger's view, these same people would be seen as having

trusted their true feelings and innermost needs rather than just
going along with the crowd, a description that certainly seems to
apply in these three cases.
141
 UNIT 7
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS AND TREATMENT
TECHNIQUES
Examples

 Susan has broken up with her boyfriend, the young

man she had been sure would marry. Now she
constantly feels tired, weak, and very depressed. She
can’t seem to sleep at night, and she can hardly taste
what little food she eats. Her friends have begun to
worry about her mood and her weight loss. Susan drags
herself to classes, but she can’t concentrate when she
tries to study. As a result, her grades have begun to
drop.
 Is Susan showing a normal reaction or a serious
psychological disturbance?

[introduction to psychology, Morgan et al, 1986]

 Three weeks ago, Mark returned to college after
attending his sister’s funeral. She had been killed in
a highway collision. Mark and his sister had always
been very close. Last night, something very strange
happened. Alone in his dorm, Mark suddenly saw
his dead sister and her speak to him.
 Is Mark’s behavior a sign of insanity?

[introduction to psychology, Morgan et al, 1986]

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, you are expected to:

 Describe how psychological disorders are defined, as well as

the inherent difficulties in doing so.

 Identify the nature of Psychological disorders.

Explain the causes of psychological disorders.

Identify the different types, characteristic features of

psychological disorders.
Explain different theories to explain the nature of abnormality.

Discuss the treatment techniques.

 PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS AND TREATMENT
TECHNIQUES

 Mental illness, also called mental health disorders, refers to a

wide range of mental health disorders that affects mood,
thinking and behavior.
 Many people have mental health concerns from time to time.
But, a mental health concern becomes a mental illness when
ongoing signs and symptoms cause frequent stress and affect
ability to function.
Defining 'Abnormality'

 Who is abnormal for you?

 There is no one and universally accepted definition of
psychological disorder. There are four different criteria's to
define abnormality in psychology

A. Violation of socially accepted expectations.

 According to this definition, abnormal behavior is a behavior
that deviates from the behavior of the typical‘ person; the
norm.
 Defining 'Abnormality

 When someone behaves in culturally unacceptable ways and

the behaviors he/she exhibit violates the norm, standards,
rules and regulations of the society, this person is most likely
to have a psychological problem.
 It is when the individual’s behavior is deviating from once
own social and cultural beliefs or values, or traditions
 Defining 'Abnormality

B. Personal Distress: it is the physical or psychological

pain observed on the individual. When people experience
considerable emotional distress without any life experience
that warrants it, they may be diagnosed as having
psychological or mental disorder.
 Our subjective feelings of anxiety, stress, tension and other
unpleasant emotions determine whether we have a
psychological disorder.
 Defining 'Abnormality' '

C. Maladaptiveness: it is the reduction of the

individual’s normal level of performance or
functioning, i.e., washing hand before you eat is
normal or adaptive functioning, but washing your
hands 100 times a day is impaired or maladaptive
functioning
 Defining 'Abnormality

 Maladaptive behavior in one way or another creates

a social, personal and occupational problem on
those who exhibit the behaviors. These behaviors
seriously disrupt the day-to-day activities of
individuals that can increase the problem more.
 Defining 'Abnormality

D. Risky (harmful) to self and others: it is when the individual

poses any harmful behavior to oneself and to others.


 Defining 'Abnormality'

 In light of the above discussion let us define what

abnormal psychology is?
 Definition-Abnormal psychology is a branch of
psychology that studies behavior defined as deviant,
pathological, maladaptive, unfulfilling, self-
destructive and self-defeating.
 Causes of Psychological Disorders (Based on
Perspectives)

 Ancient/Traditional view
 possession of devil or evil spirit.
 The biological model
 anatomical or biochemical problems in the brain and
body.
 imbalance of neurotransmitters or hormones, and
 genetic inheritance of abnormalities,
 or viral infections.
 Biological models focus on biochemical processes, usually
involving chemicals known as neurotransmitters, which
mediate mood and behavior. They also consider how damage
to the brain can result in a number of mental health disorders.
Psychological Perspectives

 Psychoanalytic perspective
 early childhood experiences and
 unresolved, unconscious sexual or aggressive
conflicts.
 Abnormal behavior is caused by the Ego's inability to
manage the conflicts between the opposing demands of
the Id and the Superego.
 How people resolve emotional conflicts during
childhood affects their thoughts and behaviors for the
rest of their lives.
 Psychological Perspectives

 Behavioral Model /Learning perspective/

 Most emotional and mental disorders arise from
inadequate or inappropriate learning. People acquire
abnormal behaviors through the kinds of learning or
imitation.
 classical conditioning,
 operant conditioning, and
 modeling—account for all behavior, whether normal
or dysfunctional
 Cognitive perspective
 Self-defeating thoughts lead to the development of negative
emotions and self-destructive behaviors.
 People's way of thinking about events in their life
determines their emotional and behavioral patterns.
 our thinking patterns in one way or another affects our
emotional and behavioral wellbeing in either positive or
negative ways
 Types of Psychological Disorders

 Psychological disorders
 There are so many psychological disorders identified. For the sake of
introduction we only discuss the following
 Mood Disorders
 Anxiety Disorders
 Personality Disorders
Anxiety Disorders

 Psychological disorders that involve excessive

levels of negative emotions such as [nervousness,
tension, worry, fright and apprehension]
 Symptoms like
 Increased muscle tension
 Shallow rapid breathing
 Increased perspiration
 Drying of the mouth
 Sympathetic response
 Types of anxiety disorders

•
 Anxiety Disorders
 Generalized Anxiety Disorders(GAD)
 Panic Disorder
 Phobic disorders
 Obsessive compulsive disorder(OCD)
 Posttraumatic stress Disorders(PTSD)
 a) Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

 Generalized anxiety disorder it is a widespread anxiety that is

impossible to manage by avoiding specific situations. The person
expresses a great many worries but cannot specifically tell the
causes.
 Constant and exaggerated worry
 Worry for at least 6 months
 An intense anxiety that is diffuse
 Multiple topics of worry
 Not brought on by anything specific
 No clear insight to what is causing the anxiety
 b) Panic Disorder

 a sudden episode of extreme anxiety that rapidly escalates in

intensity. (Specific, time bound)
 Can last from seconds to hours
 No particular stimulus to bring it on
 intense physical symptoms and sudden overpowering feelings
of terror.
 People having panic attacks sometimes believe they are having
heart attacks, losing their minds, or on the verge of
death
 Symptoms
 rapid breathing, increased heart rate, chest pains, sweating,

trembling and faintness.

 c) Phobic Disorders

 A persistent and excessive anxiety, fear of some object, activity,

or situation that consistently leads a person to avoid it.
 No real or significant threat involved
 The fear is unreasonable
 Two main categories of phobic disorders
 Specific Phobias
 Animals or insects
 Physical environment –heights, elevators
 Specific situations – airplanes
 Social phobias
 Persistent fears of social or performance situations in
which embarrassment could occur
 Public speaking
• Phobia types Feared objects or situation
1. Acrophobia.........................................High place
2.Claustrophobia...................................Enclosed places
3. Ergasiophobia......................................Work
4. Gramophobia.......................................Marriage
5. Haphephobia.......................................Being touched
6. Hematophobia............................................... Blood
7. Monophobia............................................. Being alone
8. Ocholophobia................................................ Crowds
9. Xenophobia................................................... Strangers
10. Ophidiophobia...................................... Fear of snakes
 d) Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

 An Obsession is an involuntary, irrational thought that occurs

repeatedly. Sometimes it is mild.
 A compulsion is an action that a person uncontrollably performs
again and again although she or he has no conscious desire to do
so. The act is often senseless such as looking under the bed several
times before going to sleep or locking and unlocking the door
several times before going out.
 Example: a person locking and unlocking a door before leaving
home. At other times it can be severe.
 e) Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

 Distressing symptoms that arise some time after the experience of

a highly traumatic event
 Symptoms
 Re-experiencing the traumatic event
 Flashbacks
 Nightmares
 Avoidance of any possible reminders of the event
 People who were there
 Increased arousal or alertness
 Irritability
 Insomnia
 Difficulty concentrating
Mood Disorders

 prolonged and disturbed emotional state that affects

almost all of a person’s thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors.
 Psychological disorders involving depression and
or abnormal elation
Mood Disorders

 Depressive disorder is characterized by overall feelings

of desperation and inactivity.
 Elevated moods are characterized by mania or
hypomania.
 The cycling between both depressed and manic moods
is characteristic of bipolar mood disorders.
 Depressive disorder

 An affective disorder characterized by episodes of deep

unhappiness, loss of interest in life and other symptoms-Without
experiencing mania.
 Types
 major depressive disorders,
 dysthymia (pronounced dis-THI-mee-uh).
 Bipolar Disorder (previously known as Manic-Depression)
 Cyclothymia
 Types of depression

 Major Depression (also known as depression or clinical

depression) is characterized by depressed mood, diminished

interest in activities previously enjoyed, weight disturbance, sleep

disturbance, loss of energy, difficulty concentrating, and often

includes feelings of hopelessness and thoughts of suicide.

Dysthymic disorders

 Dysthymia is often considered a lesser, but more

persistent form of depression.
 Many of the symptoms are similar except to a lesser
degree. Also, dysthymia, as opposed to Major
Depression is steadier rather than periods of normal
feelings and extreme lows.
Dysthymic disorders

 Bipolar Disorder (previously known as Manic-

Depression) is characterized by periods of extreme highs
(called mania) and extreme lows as in Major Depression.
 Bipolar Disorder is subtyped either I (extreme or
hypermanic episodes) or II (moderate or hypomanic
episodes).
 Cyclothymia: Like Dysthymia and Major Depression,
Cyclothymia is considered a lesser form of Bipolar
Disorder.
Personality Disorders

 A personality disorder is a type of mental disorder in which

you have a rigid and unhealthy pattern of thinking,
functioning and behaving.
 A person with a personality disorder has trouble perceiving
and relating to situations and people
 There are around nine types of personality disorders, all of
which result in significant distress and/or negative
consequences within the individual
Types of personality disorders

 Paranoid personality disorder.

 Schizoid personality disorder.
 Schizotypal personality disorder.
 Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD)
 Borderline personality disorder (BPD)
 Histrionic personality disorder.
 Narcissistic personality disorder.
 Avoidant (or anxious) personality disorder
 Obsessive compulsive personality disorder (OCDP)
Types of personality disorders

 Paranoid (includes a pattern of distrust and

suspiciousness).
 Schizoid (pattern of detachment from social norms
and a restriction of emotions).
 Schizotypal (pattern of discomfort in close
relationships and eccentric thoughts and
behaviors).
 Antisocial (pattern of disregard for the rights of
others, including violation of these rights and the
failure to feel empathy).
Types of personality disorders

 Borderline (pattern of instability in personal

relationships, including frequent bouts of clinginess
and affection and anger and resentment, often
cycling between these two extremes rapidly).
 Histrionic (pattern of excessive emotional behavior
and attention seeking)
Types of personality disorders

 Narcissistic (pattern of grandiosity, exaggerated self-

worth, and need for admiration).
 Avoidant (pattern of feelings of social inadequacies,
low self-esteem, and hypersensitivity to criticism).
 Obsessive-Compulsive (pattern of obsessive
cleanliness, perfection, and control).
Treatment Techniques

 Treatment of mental illnesses can take various

forms. They can include medication, talk-therapy,
a combination of both, and can last only one
session or take many years to complete.
 Treatment Techniques

Psychotherapy consists of the following:

A positive, healthy relationship between a client or patient
and a trained psychotherapist
Recognizable mental health issues, whether diagnosable or
not
Agreement on the basic goals of treatment
Working together as a team to achieve these goals
Treatment Techniques

 When providing psychotherapy, there are several issues to

be considered.
 First and foremost is empathy. It is a requirement for a
successful practitioner to be able to understand his or her
client's feelings, thoughts, and behaviors.
 Second, being non-judgmental is vital if the relationship
and treatment are going to work. Everybody makes
mistakes, everybody does stuff they aren't proud of.
.

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