Unit: The Cell

Module: Cellular Reproduction and Sexual

Reproduction
Lesson:2: Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction

Date: 24/05/2022 Textbook Pg No:243

 Learning Objectives
Focus Question: What are the stages of meiosis, and how does
meiosis provide genetic variation?

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to;

 Explain the phases of meiosis in terms of cell division, the movement of chromosomes, and crossing over of genetic material.

 Investigate the main phases in the process of meiosis and mitosis, using a microscope or similar instrument, or a computer
simulation

 Describe how multicellular organisms begin as a single cell (fertilized egg) that divides successively to produce many cells, with each
parent cell passing identical genetic materials to both daughter cells

 Recall that meiosis, a specialized type of cell division in sexual reproduction, results in the production of sex cells, which contain only
one of the pairs of chromosomes of the parent cell.

 Describe the importance of sexual reproduction to support the argument that the chromosome pairs found in offspring produced by
sexual reproduction represent new and unique combination of genes.

 Analyze, on the basis of research, some of the social and ethical implications of research in genetics and genomics

 Describe some genetic disorders caused by chromosomal abnormalities or other genetic mutations in terms of chromosomes
affected, physical effects, and treatments

 Explain, using the information collected from printed and electronic sources, the stages of the living cell cycle and its importance in
maintaining the differentiated cellular organization of the living being, and describe some of the problems that may occur if the
abnormal cells were allowed to continue dividing.

 Explain the importance of cell division and cell specialization in generating new tissues and organs
 Key Performance Indicators
 Identify the similarities and differences within homologous chromosomes

 Describe the specific events that occur within each stage of meiosis I and meiosis II

 Sketch the specific events that occur within each stage of meiosis
 Diagram and label the chromosome in each stage of meiosis
 Describe how chromatids exchange genetic material during synapsis and crossing over, and
its importance

 Observe the different stages of meiosis using a microscope, models, and/ or simulations

 Explain how the process of meiosis ensures the reduction of the chromosome number to
form a haploid cell (gamete) from a diploid cell and how fertilization re-establishes the
diploid number

 Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis, to include the stages, outcomes and
contribution to genetic variation
 Recognize that each zygote receives half the number of chromosomes from a maternal
gamete and the other half from a paternal gamete
 Key Performance Indicators
 Assess how meiosis contributes to genetic variation to include random assortment of
chromosomes during metaphase and crossing over
 Assess how fertilization contributes to genetic variation
 Compare and contrast sexual and asexual reproduction
 Research and debate current social and ethical issues regarding genetics and genomics
 Define karyotype and explain how it is prepared
 Explain how a karyotype is used to study genetic disorders
 Summarize the role of telomeres
 Explain how nondisjunction is related to errors in mitosis and meiosis

 Identify human disorders related to changes in chromosome numbers

 Discuss the benefits and risks of fetal testing
 Differentiate between the two types of stem cells (embryonic and adult) and their
potential uses
 Identify the importance of stem cells in generating new specialized cells
 Explain the collaborative role of the cell cycle and cell specialization in the
development of organisms
Vocabulary
 Learning Objectives

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to,

 Identify the similarities and differences within homologous chromosomes

 Describe the specific events that occur within each stage of meiosis I and meiosis II

 Sketch the specific events that occur within each stage of meiosis
 Diagram and label the chromosome in each stage of meiosis
 Describe how chromatids exchange genetic material during synapsis and crossing over, and
its importance

 Explain how the process of meiosis ensures the reduction of the chromosome number to
form a haploid cell (gamete) from a diploid cell and how fertilization re-establishes the
diploid number
 Chromosome Numbers
• All cells contain genetic information in the form of DNA
molecules.
• The instructions for traits (for example, hair color) are located on
chromosomes.
• The DNA on chromosomes is arranged in regions called genes
that code for the formation of proteins, which carry out most of
the work of cells.
• Each chromosome consists of hundreds of genes, each playing a
role in determining characteristics and functions of the cell.
 Chromosome Numbers
Homologous Chromosomes
• Human body cells have 46
chromosomes. Each parent
contributes 23, resulting in
23 pairs of chromosomes.
• Chromosomes that make up
a pair, one from each parent,
are called homologous
chromosomes.
• Homologous chromosomes
have the same length and
centromere position. They
carry genes that control the
same traits.
these genes that code for earlobe type, they might
not code for the exact same type of earlobe.
 Chromosome Numbers
Haploid and Diploid Cells
• Gametes are sex cells that have half the number of
chromosomes. The symbol n is used to represent the
number of chromosome. In humans, n is 23.
• A cell with n number of chromosomes is called haploid.
• Fertilization is the process by which one haploid
gamete combines with another haploid gamete.
• A cell that contains 2n number of chromosomes is called
a diploid cell.
 Chromosome Numbers
Sex Determination
• Each cell in your body, except for gametes, contain 23 pairs of
chromosomes.
• One of these pairs, the sex chromosomes, determine an
individual’s gender.
• The other 22 pairs of chromosomes are called autosomes.
• There are two types of sex chromosomes—X and Y. Individuals
with two X chromosomes are female. Individuals with X and Y are
male.
 Meiosis
• Gametes form during meiosis,
a type of cell division that
reduces the number of
chromosomes.
• Meiosis occurs in the
reproductive structures of
organisms that reproduce
sexually, forming haploid
gametes or spores.
• It reduces the chromosome
number by half through the
separation of homologous
chromosomes.
• A cell with 2n chromosomes
will have gametes with n
chromosomes after meiosis.
 Meiosis

The cell division

that formed involves two
Occurs in the
gametes consecutive cell
reproductive
divisions
Reduce the structures
called :
number of of organisms that
chromosomes reproduce
sexually. meiosis I
Referred to as a
Reduction division Meiosis II
 Meiosis I
Interphase
• Chromosomes replicate.
• Chromatin condenses.
Prophase I
• Homologous chromosomes pair. Each
chromosome consists of two chromatids.
• Crossing over produces the exchange of genetic
information. The nuclear envelope breaks down.
• Spindles form.

Crossing over is a process during which chromosomal segments

are exchanged between a pair of homologous chromosomes.
 Meiosis I
Metaphase I
• Chromosome centromeres attach to
spindles.
• Homologous chromosomes line up
at equator.

Anaphase I
• Homologous chromosomes separate
and move to opposite poles of the
cell.

Telophase I
• Spindles break down.
• Chromosomes uncoil to form two
nuclei.
• The cell divides.
 Meiosis II
Prophase II
• Chromosomes condense.
• Spindles form in each new
cell.
• Spindle fibers attach to
chromosomes.

Metaphase II
• Centromeres of chromosomes
line up randomly at the
equator of each cell.

Anaphase II
• Centromeres split.
• Sister chromatids separate and
move to opposite poles.
 Meiosis II

Telophase II
• Four nuclei form
around chromosomes.
• Spindles break down.
• Cells divide.

Products
• Four cells have
formed.
• Each nucleus contains
a haploid number of
chromosomes.
cytokinesis usually occurs:
 forming a furrow by
pinching in animal cells.

 forming a cell plate in

plant cells.
Why Meiosis is important ?
Because it results in genetic variation.
How Meiosis provides variation?

1- By crossing over.

2- During the random distribution of

chromosomes during metaphase I.
3- During fertilization, when gametes
randomly combine.
 The Importance of Meiosis
Meiosis Provides Variation

• Depending on how
chromosomes line up at the
equator, four gametes with
four different combinations
of chromosomes can result.

• This independent
assortment of alleles during
gamete formation is a
source of genetic variation.
 Sexual v. Asexual
reproduction reproduction

Example of organisms: Example of organisms:

 Human
 Bacteria
 Advanced animals

Characteristics of organisms: Characteristics of organisms:

- Organism inherits all

Organism inherits all chromosomes from single
chromosomes from both parent.
parents
Example of organisms:
- New individual is genetically
identical to its parent.
 Most Protists
 Most plants
 More simple animals
Sexual Reproduction v. Asexual Reproduction

• During asexual reproduction, chromosome number

is maintained by mitosis.
• The organism inherits all of its chromosomes from a
single parent.
• The new individual is genetically identical to its
parent.
• Bacteria reproduce asexually, whereas most protists
reproduce both asexually and sexually, depending
on environmental conditions.
• Most plants and many of the more simple animals
can reproduce both asexually and sexually.
 Explain: why do some species reproduce
sexually while others reproduce asexually?

1- The rate of accumulation of beneficial

mutations is faster in sexual reproduction

2- The beneficial genes multiply faster over time

than they do when reproduction is asexual.
 Telomeres

• Telomeres are chromosomes that end in protective

caps that consist of DNA associated with proteins.
• The cap serves a protective function for the
structure of the chromosome.
• Telomeres might be involved in aging and cancer.
 Karyotypes and Nondisjunction
Karyotypes
• A karyotype is a type of micrograph in which the pairs of
homologous chromosomes are arranged in decreasing size.

Figure 20 Karyotypes arrange the pairs of

homologous chromosomes in order of
decreasing size.
 Karyotypes and Nondisjunction
Nondisjunction
• Cell division during which
sister chromatids fail to
separate properly (which
happens occasionally) is
called nondisjunction.
• Nondisjunction can result in
extra copies of certain
chromosomes or only one
copy of a particular
chromosome in offspring.
• In humans, alterations of
chromosome numbers are
associated with serious
disorders, which are often
fatal.
 Karyotypes and Nondisjunction

Autosomes
• Autosomes are
chromosomes that are
not sex chromosomes.
• Humans typically have 22
pairs of autosomes.
• Down syndrome is the
result of an extra
chromosome 21 and is
often called trisomy 21.
 Karyotypes and Nondisjunction
Sex Chromosomes
• Nondisjunction occurs in both autosomes and sex chromosomes.
• An individual with Turner’s syndrome has only one sex
chromosome. The condition results from fertilization with a gamete
that had no sex chromosome.
• An individual with Klinefelter’s syndrome has three sex
chromosomes. This condition results from fertilization with a
gamete that had two sex chromosomes.
 Cellular Differentiation and Stem Cells
• Cellular differentiation is the process by which an
unspecialized cell develops into a specialized cell with
a defined structure and function.
• Stem cells are a type of cell that can be directed to
become a specialized cell.
 Cellular Differentiation and Stem Cells
Embryonic Stem Cells
• These are unspecialized cells that
result after a sperm fertilizes an
egg.
• Each embryonic stem cell has all
the DNA needed to develop into a
wide variety of specialized cells.
• Embryonic stem cell research is
controversial.
 Cellular Differentiation and Stem Cells
Adult Stem Cells
• As adults, animals have stem cells that can differentiate into the
specific types of cells they are surrounded by.
• Stem cells are found in various tissues in the body and might be
used to maintain and repair tissue.
• Adult stem cell research is less controversial.
• Stem cells might be used to repair cardiac tissue after a heart attack, to
restore vision in diseased or injured eyes, to treat diseases such as
diabetes, or to repair spinal cells to reverse paralysis caused by injury
 Quiz

1. How many chromosomes would a cell have during

metaphase I of meiosis if it has 12 chromosomes during
interphase?

A 6

B 24

C 12

D 36 CORRECT
 Quiz

2. Which is not a characteristic of homologous

chromosomes?

A Homologous chromosomes have the

same length.
B Homologous chromosomes have the same
centromere position.
C Homologous chromosomes have the exact
same type of allele at the same CORRECT

D Homologous chromosomes pair up during

meiosis I.
 Quiz

3. Which does not occur during telophase II?

A Chromosomes C Spindles break down.

condense.
CORRECT

B Four nuclei form D Cells divide.

around chromosomes.
 Quiz

4. What could explain a human karyotype showing 47

chromosomes?

A monosomy C codominance

B dominant traits D trisomy CORRECT

 Quiz

5. Why does nondisjunction occur?

A The sister chromatids do C Cytokinesis does not

not separate. CORRECT occur properly.

B The chromosomes do D The nucleoli do not

not condense disappear.
properly.