Satellite Link Design

• It gives the estimate of power that the satellite would be able to receive from
transmitting earth station & power received from satellite repeater by the
receiving earth station.
• The Earth station - satellite segment is called the uplink
• The satellite - Earth station segment is called the downlink
• The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications
since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space.
• This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or
receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the
atmosphere and not ground obstacles.
• Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law, which states
that the power received is inversely proportional to the square of the
distance.
Satellite Link Design
• There are, however, a number of additional effects that produce a significant
amount of degradation and time variation.
• These include rain, terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls, and
some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and
ionosphere.
• The four factors related to satellite system design:
1.The weight of satellite
2.The choice frequency band
3.Atmospheric propagation effects
4.Multiple access technique
• The major frequency bands are 6/4 GHz, 14/11 GHz and 30/20 GHz
(Uplink/Downlink)
• At geostationary orbit there is already satellites using both 6/4 and 14/11 GHz
every 2˚(minimum space to avoid interference from uplink earth stations)
Satellite Link Design

Figure 1: Satellite Link Design

Satellite Link Design
• It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant
contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into
account.
• The four factors related to satellite system design:
1. The weight of satellite
2. The choice frequency band
3. Atmospheric propagation effects
4. Multiple access technique
• The major frequency bands are 6/4 GHz, 14/11 GHz and 30/20 GHz
(Uplink/Downlink).
• At geostationary orbit there is already satellites using both 6/4 and 14/11
GHz every 2˚(minimum space to avoid interference from uplink earth
stations).
Link Budget Analysis
Link Budget Analysis depends on:
• Antenna Gain
• Path Loss
• Obstacle Loss
• Atmospheric Loss
• Receiver Gain
General Link Design Equations

• In satellite communications links design the important calculations is the power received by the
receiving stations.
• The power received by the receiving antenna
= / ……………………(1)
• The directivity of antenna is described by its gain as:
=4π ……………………(2)
From eqn2 in eqn1 we get:
=/4 π …………………(3)
• The product is called effective isotropic radiated power(EIRP) of the transmitter & is a figure of merit
for a transmitter.
• The receiving antenna gain is related to the effective area by the relationship
= 4 π / ……………………...(4)
Substituting eqn4 in eqn3 we get:
= …………….(5)
Telemetry, Tracking, Commanding and Monitoring (TTCM)

• TTCM subsystem is present in both satellite and earth station.

• In general, satellite gets data through sensors.
• So, Telemetry subsystem present in the satellite sends this data to earth
station(s). Therefore, TTCM subsystem is very much necessary for any
communication satellite in order to operate it successfully.
• It is the responsibility of satellite operator in order to control the
satellite in its life time, after placing it in the proper orbit.
• This can be done with the help of TTCM subsystem.
Telemetry, Tracking, Commanding and Monitoring (TTCM)

This TTCM subsystem is divided into following three parts-

• Telemetry and Monitoring Subsystem
• Tracking Subsystem
• Commanding Subsystem
1. Telemetry and Monitoring Subsystem
The word ‘Telemetry’ means measurement at a distance.
Mainly, the following operations take place in ‘Telemetry’.
• Generation of an electrical signal, which is proportional to the quantity to be
measured.
• Encoding the electrical signal.
• Transmitting this code to a far distance.
Telemetry, Tracking, Commanding and Monitoring (TTCM)

Telemetry and Monitoring Subsystem: Telemetry subsystem is a remote

controlled system. It sends monitoring data from satellite to earth station.
• Generally, the telemetry signals carry the information related altitude,
environment and satellite.
• Satellites have quite a few sensors to monitor different parameters such as
pressure, temperature, status and etc., of various subsystems. In general,
the telemetry data is transmitted as FSK or PSK.
• Telemetry subsystem present in the satellite performs mainly two functions
1. Receiving data from sensors, and
2. Transmitting that data to an earth station.
 Telemetry, Tracking, Commanding and Monitoring (TTCM)
2. Tracking Subsystem: Tracking subsystem is useful to know the position of the
satellite and its current orbit.
• Satellite Control Center (SCC) monitors the working and status of space segment
subsystems with the help of telemetry downlink. And, it controls those subsystems
using command uplink.
• It mainly focusses on range and look angles of satellite. Number of techniques that
are using in order to track the satellite.
• For example, change in the orbital position of satellite can be identified by using
the data obtained from velocity and acceleration sensors that are present on
satellite.
• The tracking subsystem that is present in an earth station keeps tracking of
satellite, when it is released from last stage of Launch vehicle.
• It performs the functions like, locating of satellite in initial orbit and transfer orbit.
Telemetry, Tracking, Commanding and Monitoring (TTCM)

3. Commanding Subsystem: Commanding subsystem is necessary in order to launch

the satellite in an orbit and its working in that orbit.
• This subsystem adjusts the altitude and orbit of satellite, whenever there is a deviation in
those values.
• It also controls the communication subsystem.
• This commanding subsystem is responsible for turning ON / OFF of other subsystems
present in the satellite based on the data getting from telemetry and tracking subsystems.
• In general, control codes are converted into command words.
• These command words are used to send in the form of TDM frames. Initially, the
validity of command words is checked in the satellite.
• After this, these command words can be sent back to earth station. Here, these command
words are checked once again.
Launching of Satellite
Launching of Satellites
• The process of placing the satellite in a proper orbit is known as launching process. During
this process, from earth stations we can control the operation of satellite. Mainly, there are
four stages in launching a satellite.
• First Stage − The first stage of launch vehicle contains rockets and fuel for lifting the
satellite along with launch vehicle from ground.
• Second Stage − The second stage of launch vehicle contains smaller rockets. These are
ignited after completion of first stage. They have their own fuel tanks in order to send the
satellite into space.
• Third Stage − The third (upper) stage of the launch vehicle is connected to the satellite
fairing. This fairing is a metal shield, which contains the satellite and it protects the satellite.
• Fourth Stage − Satellite gets separated from the upper stage of launch vehicle, when it has
been reached to out of Earth's atmosphere. Then, the satellite will go to a “transfer orbit”.
This orbit sends the satellite higher into space.
Satellite Launch Vehicles

Satellite Launch Vehicles

• Satellite launch vehicles launch the satellites into a particular orbit based
on the requirement. Satellite launch vehicles are nothing but multi stage
rockets. Following are the two types of satellite launch vehicles.
• Expendable Launch Vehicles: Expendable launch vehicles (ELV) get
destroyed after leaving the satellites in space. The following image
shows how an ELV looks.
• Reusable Launch Vehicles: Reusable launch vehicles (RLV) can be
used multiple times for launching satellites. Generally, this type of
launch vehicles will return back to earth after leaving the satellite in
space.
Azimuth Angle and Elevation Angle
Earth station will receive the maximum signal level, if it is located directly
under the satellite. Otherwise, it won’t receive maximum signal level and that
signal level decreases as the difference between the latitude and longitude of
earth station increases.
The following two angles of earth station antenna combined together are
called as look angles.
• Azimuth Angle
• Elevation Angle
These two angles are helpful in order to point at the satellite directly from the
earth station antenna.
So, the maximum gain of the earth station antenna can be directed at
satellite.
Azimuth Angle and Elevation Angle
Azimuth Angle: The angle between local horizontal plane and the plane passing
through earth station, satellite and center of earth is called as azimuth angle.
• Measure the horizontal angle at earth station antenna to north pole as shown in figure.
• It is used to track the satellite horizontally
• The formula for azimuth angle (α)-
α=+(TanG / TanL)
where,
L is Latitude of earth station antenna.
G is the difference between position of satellite orbit
and earth station antenna.
Figure: Azimuth Angle
Elevation Angle
Elevation Angle: The angle between vertical plane and line pointing to
satellite is known as Elevation angle. Vertical plane is nothing but the
plane, which is perpendicular to horizontal plane.
• The formula for elevation angle (β)-
β=((cos G.cosL-0.15)/ )
• Measure the vertical angle at earth station antenna
from ground to satellite.

Figure: Elevation Angle

Multiple Access Scheme

Multiple access scheme allows many users to share satellite’s resource

(Capacity).
• The basic form of multiple access employed by most communications
satellites is the use of many transponders.
• Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
• Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
• Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Multiple Access Scheme
Multiple Access Scheme
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
• The blocks represent signals, which can consist of a single channel or multiple
channels combined by TDMA.
• In TDMA, the receiver must synchronize to the transmitted frames and then identify
individual signals by their position within the frame.
• In time division multiple access (TDMA) each user is allocated a unique time slot at
the satellite so that signals pass through the transponder sequentially.
• Because TDMA causes delays in transmission, it is used only with digital signals.

Figure: TDMA
Multiple Access Scheme

• Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) : In frequency division

multiple access (FDMA) all users share the satellite at the same time,
but each uplink earth station transmits at a unique allocated frequency.
• This approach to sharing the frequency spectrum is familiar to us all, as
it is the way that radio broadcasting has always shared the air waves.
• Each radio station is allocated a frequency and a bandwidth, and
transmits its signals within that part of the frequency spectrum.
• FDMA can be used with analog or digitalsignals.

Figure: FDMA
Multiple Access Scheme
• Code Division Multiple Access (FDMA) : In code division multiple access
(CDMA) all users transmit to the satellite on the same frequency and at the same
time, so the signals are overlaid on one another.
• The earth stations transmit coded spread spectrum (SS) signals that can be
separated at the receiving earth station by correlation with the transmitted code.
• CDMA is inherently a digital technique.
• CDMA is much less efficient than TDMA
and FDMA in terms of bits per hertz of
transponder bandwidth, so its use is
restricted to applications in which the unique
features of CDMA
Figure: CDMA
are required.
 Describing the Orbit of a Satellite
• The orbit as it appears in the orbital plane. The point O is the center of the earth.
• The point C is the center of the ellipse.
• The two centers do not coincide unless the eccentricity, e, of the ellipse is zero (i.e.,
the ellipse becomes a circle and a = b).
• The dimensions of a and b are the semi-major and semi-minor axes of the orbital
ellipse, respectively.
 Describing the Orbit of a Satellite
• The point in the orbit where the satellite is closest to the earth is called
the perigee.
• The point where the satellite is farthest from the earth is called the
apogee.
• The perigee and apogee are always exactly opposite each other.
• The differential area swept out by the vector from the origin to the
satellite in time dt is given by-

Kepler’s second law of planetary motion.

Kepler’s third law of planetary motion
 Describing the Orbit of a Satellite
To be perfectly geostationary, the orbit of a satellite needs to have three
features:
• it must be exactly circular (i.e., have an eccentricity of zero); (ii) it must
be at the correct
• altitude (i.e., have the correct orbital period); and (iii) it must be in the
plane of the
• equator (i.e., have a zero inclination with respect to the equator).