Hawassa University

Wondo Genet College of forestry and Natural Resources

Department of: Land Administration and

Surveying Course Name: Principles of GIS

Serawit
M.
• Topics to be covered

• Unit 1. Introduction

• Unit 2. Components of GIS

• Unit 3. Data Models

• Unit 4. Coordinate System and map projection

• Unit 5. Data Sources and data capturing

• Unit 6. Spatial Databases

• Unit 7. Analysis of Geographic data

• Unit 8. Cartography and map production

• Unit 9. Planning, designing, implementing, and managing

GIS
Introduction to
GIS
• Development of GIS

• Until the nineteenth century, geographical information was used mostly for trade

and exploration by land and sea and for tax collection and military operations.

• New needs arose in step with evolving infrastructures, such as:

• roads,

• railways,

• telegraph and telephone lines, and

• gas and water supplies.

• Since the mid - 1970s, specialized computer system have been developed to process geographical information in

various ways.

• These include:

• Techniques to input geographical information, converting the information to digital form.

• Techniques for storing such information in compact format on computer disks, compact disks (CDs), and

other digital storage media.

• Methods for automated analysis of geographical data, to search for patterns, combine different kinds of data,

make measurements, find optimum sites or routes, and a host of other tasks.

• Methods to predict the outcome of various scenarios, such as the effects of climate change on vegetation.

• Techniques for display of data in the form of maps, images, and other kinds of displays.

• Capabilities for output of results in the form of numbers and tables.

• What is a GIS?

 GIS is built upon knowledge from geography, cartography, computer science, mathematics etc.

 GIS is a set of computer tools for collecting, storing, retrieving, transforming, and

displaying spatial data from the real world (Burrough and McDonnell 1998).

 GIS is a tool Responsible for capturing, storing, retrieving, displaying, customizing, and

sharing data

 ‘GIS is a facility for preparing, presenting, and interpreting facts that pertain to the surface of

the earth.

 Many functions = many parts.

 Chapter-I: Concept of GIS

• GIS is abbreviated for Geographic Information Systems

1.1. Definitions of GIS

• GIS can be described as a computer based system used to manage geographic

information (capture, store, update, manipulate, analyze, and display all forms of

geographically referenced information).

• GIS is an information system that allows for mapping, querying, modeling and

analyzing of data based on location.

Geographic Information System (GIS) can also be defined as:

The organized activity by which people

 Measure aspects of geographic phenomena and processes;

 Represent these measurements, usually in the form of a computer database, to

emphasize spatial themes, entities, and relationships;

 Operate upon these representations to produce more measurements and to discover

new
relationships by integrating disparate sources; and

 Transform these representations to conform to frameworks of entities

and
other relationships.
• GIS is a science to make maps that communicate, perform analysis, share information,
and

solve complex problems around the world.

1.2. Components of GIS

• A GIS comprises the following components:

• (a) hardware

• (b) software

• (c) data

• (d) data management and analysis procedures and

• (e) personnel/staff
A. Hardware: this includes

• Computer

• Data input devices: example digitizer and scanner.

• Data output devices: printer and plotter.

• Secondary storage medias: recordable CD/or re-writable CD, Flash disk.

B. GIS Software

• There are essential GIS software elements that must allow the user to input, store,

manage, transform, analyze, and output data. (ArcGIS, ERDAS IMAGINE, Quantum

GIS, DIVA GIS, Saga GIS…)

Two categories of GIS software
• Commercial offerings, e.g.

o ArcGIS

o ArcView

o MapInfo

o ERDAS etc

• Open source (free software), e.g.

o GRASS

o QGIS (Quantum GIS) including PostGIS and GRASS etc

C. Data : There are two major types of data: Spatial and non-spatial

• Spatial data:

o Any data that can be mapped

o Have x- and y-coordinate

o Are characterized by information about location of features, and their relationship with
other feature.
o It is a data about the geographic position of features.

o It answers the question “Where is it?”

 Data Components in GIS

Data

Geometric Attribute
Component Component

Qualitative Quantitative

RASTER VECTOR

Cell/pixel/grid Point Categorical Ordinal

Line
Area (polygon) Interval
Ratio
• Non-spatial data: is data that describes properties of features

o data that describes geographic features

o attribute or non-geographic data

o descriptive data/ table data

o is descriptions, measurements, and classifications of geographic

features

o It answers the question “What is at??”

• Non-spatial data is information attached in tabular format to
spatial

features.

• Non-spatial data provides characteristics about spatial data.

• Non-spatial data usually stored in a table and linked to the feature by

a unique identifier.

• For example, attributes of a river might include its name, length,

and sediment load at a gauging station.

 Spatial Non-spatial (attribute)

ID Shape X, Y Owner Area Length km

Coord

001
001 polygon 456, 234 Alemu 876.098

002 Line …… Tesfaye 50

002

003 Line …… Kebede 40

003
004 Line ….. Abebech 30

004
Sources of data

 Field survey data

 Existing tabular data and map data

 Remote sensing data

 Aerial photographs and satellite imagery

 Soft idea
Who produces spatial data?

 National agencies (USGS, USFS, NOAA, DNR)

 Military organizations

 Remote sensing companies (aerial photography, satellite)

 Utility companies

 Climatologists, geologists, hydrologists, ecologists,

geographers, oceanographers, etc.

 Graduate students! (field survey)

Remote sensing data (Spatial)
D. Data Management and analysis procedures

• A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan, which are the models and operating practices
unique to each task. There are various techniques used for map creation and further usage for any project.

• This procedures facilitate the data input, organization, retrieval and presentation of results.

• The general procedure for running a GIS project includes:

a. Determining the objectives of the GIS project

b. Build the GIS database

c. Capture data

d. Entering and Checking data

e. Transforming/projecting data

f. Analysis of the data (analysis specific procedures are also required.)

g. Visualization/presentation of the analysis results (information)

E. Personnel

• The component personnel includes personnel working with the data

management, and final users of the results of the analysis (the GIS output)

such as decision-makers, planners, resource managers and technicians.

• These usually require skills in selecting and using tools from the GIS

toolbox and intimate knowledge of the data being used.

 “GIS cycle”
 Data collection in the real world,

 Digitizing & structuring

 computer database

 Combining data sources

 Data analysis

 Information generation

 Decision making

 Data updating-----(Data
collection)
1.3. Questions a GIS can answer

• There are five basic questions that a sophisticated GIS can answer.

1. What is located at ...?.....Location

2. Where is something happening …?......Condition

3. What has changed since (e.g. LULCC)...?.....Trend

4. What spatial patterns exist?.... regular arrangement of things

5. What if some thing happens (agroforestry trend in

ethiopia)...?...Model
Applications of GIS

o GIS in Mapping:

o Telecom and Network services:

o Accident Analysis and Hot Spot

Analysis:

o Urban Planning:

o Environmental Impact Analysis:

o Disaster management and mitigation

o Natural resource management

o Soil mapping

o Land information system

o Surveying
Chapter-II: Data Models
2.1. Data vs. Information

• Data is raw, un-summarized and unanalyzed fact.

• Information is data that has been processed into a meaningful form.

• One person’s information can be another person’s data.

• Information that is meaningful to one person can be too detailed for another

person.
Where is it? Is it data or information?
2.2. Geographic data types

• Geographic data are organized in a geographic database.

• There are two important components of this geographic data:

• Spatial data:

• It is a data about the geographic position of features.

• It answers the question “Where is it?”

• It is also called Geographic data, or Geospatial data in some cases

• Non-spatial data:

• Is a descriptive data about the properties of features.

• It is also called Descriptive data or Attribute data.

• It answers the question “What is at??”

 2.3. Data models:

# what is model??

• It is a simplified representation of reality which presents significant features

or relationships in a generalized form.

• It is a selective approximation of reality.

• There are two fundamental spatial data representation (Modeling)

techniques.

These include vector data model and raster data model. 30

o Traditionally spatial data has been stored and presented in the form

of a map.

o Two basic types of spatial data models have evolved for

storing geographic data digitally. These are referred to as:

o Vector

o Raster
A.Vector model

• In vector model, objects are represented by the points and lines that

define their boundaries.

• The fundamental primitive, in the vector model, is the point

• Geographic object can be shown by 3 types of representation:

1. points,

2. lines, and

3. polygons (areas).
Point:

• Isused to represent the simplest types of spatial objects having 0-dimension,

no

length but has a certain position in space.

• Point data are described by single X, Y coordinate pair.

• E.g. objects that can be represented using point include tower, an oil well or

gas activity site, town and a weather station.

34
Line:

• Is used to represent linear features.

• is a segment made of two or more coordinates.

• Linear data are described as 1-dimensional features having length.

• It has position and length

o E.g. objects that can be represented using lines include highways,

railways) or utility infrastructures (gas, electricity, telephone, water)

Polygon representation:

• Area (polygon) representation is used to represent features that is described by a

closed

string of spatial coordinates.

• It is a bounded region, which is 2-dimensional objects having a length and width.

• It has dimension, position and area

E.g. forest stands, soil classification areas, administrative boundaries, and climate zones.

36
B. Raster
Model
• Is one of the simplest data structures by which features are represented
as

cell matrixes (pixels) that store numeric values.

• A pixel (cell) is a unit of space for which entity information is

explicitly recorded.

• Raster data type consists of rows and columns of cells, with each

cell storing a single value. 37

Raster
Data
Model
• A piece of land contains 3 classes (objects): lake,
town

and forest.

• To convert this landscape to a raster data structure

a grid (matrix) is overlaid over the landscape and

classes

are given a unique code, in this case lake=1,

town=2 and forest=3.

39

• Each cell in the matrix represents a certain area in the

real world, depending on the size of the cell.

40
Geometric Representation
Point: 0-D object that specifies geometric location specified through
a set of coordinates.
Line segment (vector): 1-D object that is a direct line between 2
endpoints.
String: a sequence of line segments.

Polygon: 2-D object bounded by at least 3 line segments.

Raster cell/pixel: 2-D that represents an element of

regular tesselation of a surface.
Storing data
• Vector formats

– Discrete representations of
reality

• Raster formats

– Use square cells to model

reality Reality
(Road networks)
 2.5. Raster-vector data conversion

• Since digital data are collected and stored in various ways, the two data sources may not
be

entirely compatible. So a GIS must be able to convert geographic data from one structure

to another.

• Rasterization: Vector to raster conversion, is the process of converting

vector data,

which is a series of points, lines and polygons, into raster data, which is a series of

cells each with a discrete value.

• vector data.
Vectorization: Raster to vector conversion, is the process of converting an image
43 into
 CHAPTER 3

COORDINATE SYSTEM
3.1. Coordinate system categories

A coordinate system is a system that uses one or more numbers, or coordinates, to

uniquely determine the position of the points or other geographic objects/elements on

the surface of earth.

• There are two types of data in GIS: Spatial and Non-spatial data.

• Spatial (location) data is represented in the form of co-ordinates.

• There are two main types of coordinate systems:

• Geographic coordinate systems and

• Projected coordinate systems 45

3.1.1. Geographic coordinate system

• One of the oldest systematic methods of locating objects.

• The Geographic Coordinates of the earth are expressed in Latitudes and Longitudes.

• Latitudes (parallels) are measured from the equator and may range from 0° to 90° N

or from 0° to 90° S.

• Longitudes (meridians) are measured from the Greenwich meridian and may range

from 0° to 180° E of from 0° to 180° W

• These longitude and latitude are angles measured from the earth’s center to a point on
the
earth’s surface. The angles often are measured in 46

degrees.
48
oThe rings around the earth parallel to the equator are called parallels of

latitude or simply parallels.

oLines of latitude run East-West.

oA second set of rings around the globe at right angles to lines of latitude and

passing through the poles is known as meridians of longitude or simply

meridians.

oOne meridian is designated as the prime meridian.

49
• The prime meridian of the system we use runs through Greenwich,
England

and is known as the Greenwich meridian.

• Lines of longitude (meridians) run North-South.

• The gridded network of both parallels and Meridians is called Graticule.

• The origin of the graticule (0,0) is defined by where the equator and

prime meridian intersect.

50
Graticule

51
The units of longitude and latitude

• Geographic coordinates are expressed in angular measurement.

• Each circle is divided into 360 degrees, each degree into 60 minutes, and each

minute into 60 seconds. The degree is symbolized by °, the minute by ′,

and the second by ″.

• Starting with 0° at the equator, the parallels of latitude are numbered to 90°

both north and south.

52
• Latitude can have the same numerical value north or south of the equator, so the direction
N

or S must always be given.

• Lines east of the prime meridian are numbered to 180° and identified as east longitude;
Lines

west of the prime meridian are numbered to 180° and identified as west longitude.

• The direction E or W must always be given.

1° = 60’

• 1’ = 60”

53
To decimal degree???????

54
3.1.2. Projected coordinate system

## What is Projection??

• A map projection is simply a system for displaying the curved surface of the earth on a

flat sheet of paper.

• It is geometrical/mathematical transformation of globe to map.

• It is a drawing of parallels, meridians, and major features of the earth (globe) on flat

surface (map).

• Conversion from a Round to a Flat Surface

55
56
Projection Properties

• Projection consider the four spatial relationships (angles, areas, distances,

and

direction) found on a 3D object (globe).

• You may need one or all of the properties during projection.

• Most projections only maintain one of the properties in a specific manner—

eg., equidistant projections preserve distance from one point to all other points.

57
## Why is map projection needed?

• We often need to know distances between places, areas of features, and direction.

• For these we use flat maps instead of globes, and this necessitates a map projection.

• Different projections are used for different types of maps because each

projection particularly suits certain uses. Eg., a shape, area, direction or distance.

58
• There are three classes of map projections:

• Cylindrical projections

• Cylindrical projections may be imagined, as the transformation to a plane

that is wrapped around the globe in the form of a cylinder.

• The outline of the world map would be rectangular in shape.

59
 • Azimuthal projections

• These projections may be imagined as the transformation on a plane tangent

to the globe.

• The characteristic outline of the world map would be circular.

60
 • Conical projections

• These projections may be imagined as the transformation to a plane that

is wrapped like a cone around the globe.

• The outline of the world would be fan shaped.

61
The most important projection types based on their properties are:

i. Conformal projection: is one in which all angles are indicated correctly.

• As all angles are maintained, the shape of objects is also preserved.

ii. Equivalent projection: A map with an equivalence property is called qual-area map.

Equivalent projections preserve areas, but not shapes.

iii. Equidistance projection: distance is preserved but not area and shape.

iv. Azimuthal projection: is a type of projection that preserve directions and is

also

called true direction projection.

62
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)

• It is a projection type used in Ethiopia.

• The projection is only intended for mapping between 840N

and 800S.
Beyond that there is too much distortion.

63
• The UTM comprises the following features:

• The unit of measure is the meter.

• The world is divided into 60 zones of 60of longitude in width.

• Zone 1 has its western edge at the 1800meridian. Zone 60 has its eastern

edge on the same meridian.

• Zones are numbered from west to east.

• Each zone has its own coordinate system.

64
65
• It is difficult to represent a large area using UTM zoning.

• E.g. Ethiopia falls in zones 36 (Benshangul area), 37 (most central

parts

including Tigray, Amhara, most of Oromia, SNNP, some parts of

Afar, Somali) , 38 (Eastern part of Ethiopia)

• Still the UTM system was accepted worldwide.

• NB: coordinate reference frame is very important to work with spatial data either during

Data collection or Analysis. Eg. When you collect field data you set coordinate reference

system for UTM and Datum of Adindan.

67
Projection Transformation

o It is conversion of a coordinate system

from one projection type in to another.

(e.g. from Geographic to Projected coordinate system).

o For images, this process is called image rectification.

o GIS software transform digital information, gathered from sources with different

projections and/or different coordinate systems, to a common projection and

coordinate system.

68
69
 Chapter-4
Data Sources and data capturing
 The most common general sources for spatial data are:

 Hard copy maps;

 Remotely-sensed imagery; Aerial photographs;

 Point data,

 Samples from surveys; and

 Existing digital data files

 Existing data
 Point Line

Polygon
Image
4.1. Data Organization, Editing and
Updating
• Organizing data is very difficult. But, There are data organization options
which

include:

1. Location

Organizing data based on location helps to show relationships between various types of

content that are relevant to each other.

2.Alphabetical organization

 Organizing data alphabetically sounds easy and very fast.

 This is probably the first option that many people consider.

3. Time

 Organizing information based on the time is the best method to use data in a chronological order.

 This method can show you how things happen over a fixed period of time.

4.Hierarchy

Hierarchies are beneficial when you want to show how one piece of information is related to

another in the order of importance or their ranks.

5. Category

You can organize the data in just about any way imaginable- by type, color, gender, price, shape,

model etc. The options are infinite.

Editing and Updating Data

 Editing and updating geographic data is the process

of

o creating,

O modifying, or

O deleting features on layers in a map.

 4.2. Data Input Techniques

Data capture categories

• The capture and import of data are often the most

- Time consuming,

-Expensive and

-Difficult tasks within the whole chain of work in the GIS

environment.

77
Entering Data into the GIS database

• There are a variety of methods used to enter data into a GIS

environment,

where it is stored in a digital format.

• Four methods are widely used:

I. keyboard entry:

• is appropriate for tabular data, or for small numbers of co-ordinate pairs read from
a
78

paper map source.

II. Manual digitizing:

• Is the most common method of encoding spatial features from paper maps
(including

analogue aerial photos, topographic maps)

• Two methods of manual digitizing are possible:

a. Manual digitizing using digitizer tablet

• The table digitizer is essentially a large flat tablet with a cursor attached to it, and linked

to a computer system.

• The cursor is attached with computer and the buttons on the cursor allow the user to
instructions to computer.
send 79
Table Digitizer 80
 b. On screen digitizing

• To enter data using this technique data in digital format should be available.

• The digitizing is done using the mouse on computer screen.

• This, on-screen digitizing, uses image in raster format that is displayed on

the screen.

• It is often easier and faster to digitize directly on the screen compared to

using a digitizing table.

81
III. Electronic Data Transfer

• Is useful in entering data which is already available in digital form.

• Two ways of electronic data transfer are possible:

• Data transfer from instruments

• Refers to Spatial data in digital form, transfer from devices such as GPS receivers, Total

stations, etc.

• All that is required is download cable and data communications software for a user to

download the data to a file on their computer.

82
 • Existing data transfer

• Is implemented if data have been purchased from a data supplier, or

obtained from another agency that originally encoded the data.

• Remotely sensed data are normally provided in electronic form, since

this is the easiest way to transport the large files representing individual

'scenes' from the various sensors.

IV.Scanning

• When scanning a map, the data is

automatically

transformed into raster form.

• The main advantages of scanning is that the process

is fast and that the scanner does not miss any data

that is present on the map. 84

 4.3. Data Capturing

Geographic Data Capture

approaches
Geographic Data Collection approaches

• In principle, there are two main categories of spatial data acquisition. These are (ground

and remote sensing based methods).

• 1.Ground based data collection methods:

• This kind of data collection methods include:

o field observations, in-situ measurements and performing land surveying on the

field

• Using ground-based methods, you can operate the real world environment.
• Ground based spatial data capturing is done in a way that sensors used or mounted
on

the ground basically on level, theodolite, total station, Global Navigation Satellite

Systems (GNSS) receiver and other instruments. Any kind of field measurement.

• It is a very time-consuming and expensive activity, but it is still the best way to obtain

highly accurate point locations.

• Typically used for capturing buildings, land and property boundaries, manholes, and

other objects that need to be located accurately. Also it is employed to obtain reference

marks for use in other data capturing projects.

•
2. Remote sensing methods

• This method is based on use of image data acquired by sensor such as

aerial

cameras, scanners or radar.

• Remote sensing approach deals with driving information from image

data which represent limited form of real world.

Airborne-platform

• Aerial platforms are primarily stable wing aircraft, although helicopters

are occasionally used. Aircraft are often used to collect very detailed images and

collection
facilitate the
of data over virtually any portion of the Earth's surface at any time.

• Aerial remote sensing started few decades ago with photographic (i.e.

recording on film) cameras and the technology is now well established with

the development of sensors.

• High from 100m – 50km height from

earth.
• Aerial photographs have been a main source of information about the Earth’s surface

almost since the beginning of aviation more than a century ago. Aerial photographs

are obtained using mapping cameras that are usually mounted in the nose or

underbelly of an aircraft that then flies in discrete patterns or swathes across the area

to be surveyed.

•
…….Airborne method …….

• Are primarily stable wing aircraft, (or helicopters) are occasionally

used.

• Used to collect very detailed images and facilitate the collection of data.

• from 100m – 50km height from earth.

• Examples:

• NCAR, NOAA, and NASA research aircrafts.

Aircrafts have following advantages as platforms for remote sensing systems:

‾ Aircraft can fly at relatively low altitudes thus allowing for High spatial resolution (20 cm or less)

‾ aircraft can easily change their schedule to avoid weather problems such as clouds, which may block a

passive sensor’s view of the ground

‾ sensor maintenance, repair and configuration changes can be easily made

‾ Analog photography is possible (analog photo gives high resolution)

Dis Advantages:

• Permission to intrude into foreign airspace is required

• Many passes to cover larger area

• Swath is much less compare to satellite

• High cost per unit area

3. Spaceborne platforms

• In spaceborne, remote sensing is sometimes conducted from the space

shuttle or, more commonly, from satellites.

• Satellites are objects which revolve around another object - in this case,

the Earth. Man-made satellites include those platforms launched for

remote sensing, communication, and location and navigation purposes.

• Platforms that located from 100 to 36000 km from
earth.

• Examples:

• rockets, satellites, shuttle

• Types of spaceborne platforms:

• Space shuttle: 250-300 km

• Space station: 300-400 km

• Low-level satellites: 700-1500 km

• High-level satellites: about 36000 km

• Because of their orbits, satellites permit repetitive coverage of the Earth's surface on
a

continuing basis. Cost is often a significant factor in choosing among the

various platform options.

Space borne remote sensing has the following advantages:

‾ large area coverage

‾ frequent and repetitive coverage of areas of interest

‾ quantitative measurement of ground features possible using radiometrically calibrated

sensors

‾ relatively lower cost per unit area coverage

‾ one obvious advantage satellites have over aircrafts is the global accessibility; there are

numerous governmental restrictions that deny access to airspace over sensitive areas or

over foreign countries.

 Unit 5:
Spatial Databases
• Every user of geospatial data has experienced the challenge of
obtaining,

organizing, storing, sharing, and visualizing their data. The variety of

formats and data structures, as well as the disparate quality, of geospatial

data can result in accumulation of useful and useless pieces of spatially

explicit information that must be put into a single, unified dataset.

• Therefore spatial database was developed to overcome this problems.

• A database is a set of data that has a regular structure and that is
organized

in such a way that a computer can easily manage the data such as find

the desired information.

• A database is a collection of data or information which is held together in

a

logical or organized way.

• A database is a collection of related information that permits the

entry, storage, input, output, and organization of data.

• A database is information that is set up for easy access,

management and updating.

Database: is a collection of inter-related data which helps

in efficient retrieval, insertion and deletion of data from

database.
• Geographic/spatial databases are simply databases containing geographic data
for

a particular area and subject. GIS can show many different kinds of data on one

map, such as streets, buildings, landscapes and vegetation.

• GIS combines spatial data from many sources with many different
people.

Databases connect users to the GIS database. For example, a city might have the

wastewater division, land records, transportation, and fire departments connected

and using datasets from common spatial databases.

• Spatial databases provide a strong foundation for:

• accessing,

• storing, and

• managing your spatial data empire.

• A spatial database includes location. It has geometry as

points, lines, and polygons. Databases connect users to the GIS

database.
• A GIS is a computer based system that provides the following four

sets of capabilities to handle georeferenced/spatial data:

1. Data capture and preparation

2. Data management, including storage and maintenance

3. Data manipulation and analysis

4. Data presentation
Spatial Database Management System

• Database management system is a software package to store, retrieve,

and manipulate data.

• -It Used to define, create and maintain a database.

• -Thedata accessed by multiple users and application programs

• A spatial database is a database that is optimized for storing and querying

data that represents objects defined in a geometric space.

• It is a DB system that enhanced to store and access spatial data.

• A geospatial database is optimized for storing and querying data

that represents objects defined in a geometric space, such as

vector data and raster data. With data volume growing

exponentially, a geospatial database provides the best manageability

and security to analyze large, complex, heterogeneous spatial data.

• The spatial databases store both vector and raster data, hence
it

can be used to tackle the maximum amount of spatial problems. The

blend of both vector and raster data produces a powerful product that

can tackle various earth-related problems.

• Any Spatial database system should address the following five main areas
to

support spatial applications:

• (i) Classification of Space

• (ii) Data Model,

• (iii) Query Language,

• (iv) Query Processing, and

• (v) Data organization and Indexing.

• Geospatial database platforms provide specialized
management,

processing, and analysis engines required for complex geospatial

data. The scalability and performance of such systems are two key

factors for success, along with providing development and

integration support.
How geospatial database works

• Data ingestion

• Data enrichment

• Geospatial processing

• Interactive analysis

• Sharing and publication of results

 CHAPTER 6:
Analysis of Geographic data
 DATA ANALYSIS

• The analytical capabilities of GIS is considered as the heart of the whole system.

• It is a process in which you model problems geographically, derive results by computer

processing, and then explore and examine those results.

• It can be used to manage and analyze geographical data and drive some
important geographical information.

• The analysis functions use the spatial and non-spatial attributes in the database
to answer questions about the real world.

111
• The steps in GIS analysis?

• Step 1: Identify your objectives. ...

• Step 2: Create a project

database. ...

• Step 3: Analyze the data. ...

• Step 4: Present the results. ...

General GIS functionality

 Spatial queries

• Site analysis

• Trend analysis

• Pattern analysis

 Spatial overlay

 Spatial modeling

 Network operations

 Interpolation

 Digital terrain analysis

 Statistical analysis
TIPS: Spatial data selection

 Resolution?:quality of data in terms of

detail

 Data model?: vector/raster

 Attribute representation?:attribute

included, the data described

 Trustworthiness?: source from where you

got the data

• There is a wide range of analysis function for data analysis available in
most GIS packages.
• The following are analysis operations focusing on vector data:

• Measurements

• Query

• Merging

• Clipping

• Dissolving

• Classification / reclassification

• Overlay

• Buffering

• Statistical and tabular analysis 115

a. Measurement

• Refers to the capability of GIS software packages in making some

measurements

including length, area, and perimeter measurements.

b.Query

• Queries offer a method of data retrieval from GIS database.

• It is a question for database

• Is useful to quest out or query a particular entity to be retrieved based on

certain characteristics (e.g. Name, Area or ID).

• It is like calling a name of a student and then the student raises his hand 116
c.Merging

• Combines multiple input datasets of the same data type into a single, new output
dataset.

• This tool can combine point, line, or polygon feature classes or tables.

• It refers to the integration of two or more adjacent layers to create a new one.

• Merging can only be performed in either of the following ways

• Points and points

• Lines and lines

117

• Polygons and polygons

d. Clipping

• Refers to the extraction or cutting of a certain area of interest out of

a

larger input layer.

•A clip layer is used like a cookie cutter on the input layer. Data

not relevant to the study (i.e. outside the area) can therefore be removed

• During this clipping process the input layer’s attributes are not altered.

118
 Extracts input features that overlay the clip features.

 Use this tool to cut out a piece of one feature class using one or more of the features
in

another feature class as a cookie cutter.

This is particularly useful for creating a new feature class or area of interest (AOI)

— that contains a geographic subset of the features in another, larger feature class.
e.
Dissolving
• Refers to aggregating small polygons into new, larger, polygons
which

contain at least one common attribute from the smaller polygons.

• This operation aggregates features that have the same value for an

attribute that you specify.

120
f. Buffering

• It is the creation of a zone of interest around an entity (e.g. a road, national

park,

town…)

• The buffer operation will generate polygon feature types irrespective of

geographic features and delineates spatial proximity.

121
g. Map
overlay
• Using GIS, it is possible to take two different thematic map
layers

of the same area and overlay them one on top of the other to form

a new layer.

• INTERSECTION and UNION are among the major vector overlay

techniques that can be used for analysis.

122
• Intersection: is an operation useful to cut an input layers with the
features

from an overlay layer to produce an output layer with features that

have attribute data from both layers.

• Intersect creates a new feature from the common areas

123
Union

• It is an overlay operation useful to combine features of an input layer

with

the polygons from an overlay layer to produce an output layer that

contains the attributes and full extent of both themes.

124
Presenting Results

• One of the most exciting aspects of GIS technology is the

variety of different ways

in which the information can be presented once it has been

processed by GIS.

• Visual communication is one of the most fascinating aspects

of GIS technology and is available in a diverse range of

output options.
125

• One of the diverse output ranges which helps for presenting

result is a MAP.
 What is a Map?

• Map is a simplified model of reality containing

geographical

information on a flat surface.

• A map is a way of representing any object on two-

dimensional surface,(a paper, computer monitor).

• Map can show many things that a picture cannot show.

• We be must selective on which information to include based on

our purpose map production.

 • Essential Requirements for map reading:

1. Scale of the map:

 A scale is a statement of relationship between distances on a map and distances on the

ground.

 Scale is the ratio of objects on the map to the real world.

 The scale depends on the purpose and extent of details desired to be represented in the
map.

 From the scale of a map an idea of the ground distances can be effectively and
correctly

obtained.

• Scale = map distance / ground distance

 Map scale

• Map scale determines the size and shape of

features
 If the distance between point A and B is 5cm on the map and Ground measured distance of point A

to B is 10 Km, calculate the scale

 Scale= MD/GD

5cm/10km= 5cm/10000000= 1:5000000?? Check it

 2. Conventional
signs
 A conventional sign is the name given to the symbol used to indicate a
feature

on the map.

 These signs are the alphabets of map reading.

 For facility of recognition, conventional signs should be supportive of

the objects represented.

 Signs should be as simple as possible to facilitate drawing. These signs are

not drawn to scale.

 3. Orientation (Setting up) of a map

 It consists of setting up the map and its north direction coincides with the

actual Geographical North.

 When properly oriented, a line from the observer's position on the map to

any other point on the map is the real direction of the same point on the

ground.
 Map Elements

 Reading information from a map requires certain skills.

 Besides to the skill of map reading a given map should have the of
marginal

information placed correctly and completely.

 The major elements that am map is supposed to have are:

1.Data on map (Primary content) 2. Title of the map

3. Scale of the map 4. The Legend of the Map

5. North Arrow 6. Grid references

7. The Date when the map is published 8. Author

 Title of the map North
Arrow

Grid references

Scale
June 2022
Legend

Author Date
 Unit 7
Cartography and map production
• A map is a symbolic representation of selected characteristics of a place, usually drawn

on a flat surface. Maps present information about the world in a simple, visual way. They

teach about the world by showing sizes and shapes of countries, locations of features, and

distances between places

• A parcel map, also known as a. property map and tax map, are maps typically built
to

identify property.

• Maps are the primary tools by which spatial relationships and geographic data are
visualized.

Maps therefore become important documents.

• Production of a map requires:

• selection of the few features in the real world to include

• classification of selected features into groups (i.e. bridges, churches, railways)

• simplification of jagged lines like coastlines

• exaggeration of features to be included that are to small to show at the scale of

the map

• symbolization to represent the different classes of features chosen

Characteristics of maps

• maps are often stylized, generalized or abstracted, requiring careful interpretation

• usually out of date

• show only a static situation - one slice in time

• often highly elegant/artistic

• easy to use to answer certain types of questions:

• how do I get there from here?

• what is at this point?

• difficult or time-consuming to answer other types:

• what is the area of this lake?

• what places can I see from this TV tower?

• what does that thematic map show at the point I'm interested in on this topographic map?
• A map is a graphic representation of the cultural and
physical

environment. The keyword here is graphic representation, as all maps are

visual representations of the phenomenon to be modeled.

• The second definition of a map is that it is a reduced, selective, and

symbolized graphical representation of an environment. This definition

introduces three key terms reduced, selective, and symbolized.

• Reduced: The first term, reduced, refers to the fact that almost all maps
are

more useful than when they are reproduced at a smaller scale than the

actual phenomenon being mapped.

• Selective: The second term, selective, means that maps should only

include items that are directly related to the message of the map.

• Symbolized: The third term, symbolized, refers to the idea of extracting

the item being mapped by using a representative symbol.

Classifying Maps in terms of Medium

• Classifying maps begins with categorizing them into mediums. The three types of map mediums are

tangible, virtual, and mental.

• Tangible: A tangible map is a map that you can hold in your hands such as a paper map. The nice

thing about tangible maps is that they can be easily shared between users and there is no specialized

hardware or software required to use them. Additionally, tangible maps are portable, and can be stored

for long amounts of time without any need for maintenance.

• Virtual: A virtual map is any map displayed on a computing device. Maps are now found on desktop
computers,

tablets, laptops, phones, GPS receivers, and many other digital devices. The great thing about virtual maps

is they are easily updatable, can be dynamic, show animation, can link to large amounts of information such as

documents, pictures, movies, and sounds, and can be easily shared.

• Negative aspects of virtual maps include: they require hardware and software to view, may require maintenance

in order for the map to exist for a long time, may not be intuitive to many users, and may require more

training to develop.
• Mental: A mental map is a map that is stored in someone’s mind and is their

conceptualization of space. Mental maps do not translate exactly from person-

to-person except through the conversion of the mental map to a tangible or

virtual map, or to any other communication path such as speech or writing.

Cartography

• Cartography is the art and science of making maps. Cartography involves

the

process of producing a map through the philosophical and theoretical basis of

map making. A cartographer is someone who designs and prepares a map for

distribution. More specifically, a cartographer is someone who studies the

philosophical and theoretical basis of the rules for making maps.

• Cartography is seldom a stand-alone profession and is now seen as a

skill set possessed by geographers, geographic

information scientists, or anyone else who wishes to create a map.

• The profession of cartography still does exist and is important

to many agencies that wish to produce high quality maps.

• In cartography, technology has continually changed in order to meet
the

demands of new generations of mapmakers and map users.

• Cartographic design or map design is the process of making the

appearance of a map, applying the principles of design and knowledge of

how maps are used to create a map that has both aesthetic appeal and

practical function.

• Cartographers apply many design principles when compiling their maps and

constructing page layouts.

Map Production

• The printing of a map or the electronic duplication of a map in a digital

format.

Presently, cartographers have a number of reproduction technologies from which to

choose, including offset printing (lithography), plotters, large-format printers, desktop

printers and electronic media.

• Map production is the process of arranging map elements on a sheet of paper in a

way that, even without many words, the average person can understand what it is all

about.
• The steps involved in map production are surveying,
aerial

photography, evaluation, recording of landscape objects in

the database and digital cartography.

•
• Map is a graphic representation, drawn to scale and usually on a flat
surface,

of features—for example, geographical, geological, or geopolitical—of an

area of the Earth or of any other celestial body. Globes are maps represented

on the surface of a sphere. Cartography is the art and science of making

maps and charts.

 Unit 8:
Planning, designing, implementing, and managing GIS
• Just refer to second manual

• Both of manuals are important for your exit exam. So

prepare

your self accordingly.