University Exit Exam

Electrical Circuit Tutorial 1

(DC circuit)
1.1 Systems of Units.
1.2 Electric Charge.
1.3 Current.
1.4 Voltage.
1.5 Power and Energy.
1.6 Circuit Elements.
Systems of Units.
• Electrical classification of materials
– Electrically, all materials fall into 1 of 3 classifications
• Conductors
• Insulators
• Semi-Conductors
– Conductors
• electrons can move freely from atom to atom
• to allow electrical current to flow with minimum resistance.
– Insulators
• Electrons do not flow easily from atom to atom
• to prevent the flow of electricity.
• such as glass, rubber, or plastic are also called dielectrics, meaning they can store
charges.
• Dielectric materials are used in components like capacitors
– Semi-Conductors
• neither conductors nor insulators
• Common semi conductor materials are carbon, germanium and silicone.
• Used in components like transistors,diodes
 • Electric Charge
– electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter consists,
– electronic charge e =-1.602  10-19 C
– The charges are integral multiples of the electronic charge.
• C=-2.403  10-19 C? Coulomb’s law :
– The law of conservation of charge.
• Current
– Flow of charge
• Actually electron
• Conventionally proton
– i = dq/dt
– Direct current (dc) Vs alternating current (ac)

Example 1
A conductor has a constant current of 5 A.
How many electrons pass a fixed point on the conductor in one minute?
Example 2
Determine the total charge entering a terminal between t = 1 s and t = 2 s if the current
passing the terminal is 1. Forces and are experienced by and , due to the presence of and respectively. They are equal in magnitude and
opposite of each other in direction.
i = (3t2 – t) A 2. The magnitude of the force is proportional to the product of the charge magnitudes.
3. The magnitude of the force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the charges.
4. The magnitude of the force depends on the medium.
5. The direction of the force is along the line joining the charges.
• Voltage (or potential difference)
– Energy required to move a unit charge through an element from a to b,

vab  dw / dq
Vab =Va – Vb

• Power and Energy

• time rate of expending or absorbing energy
dw dw dq
p    vi
i dt dq dt i
+ +
Passive sign convention
v p = +vi p = –vi v
absorbing power supplying power –
–

•
•The law of conservation of energy p
Energy is the capacity to do work t
 0
t
w   pdt   vidt
t0 t0
• Circuit Elements
– Active Elements I,V
– Passive Elements C,LR
– Dependent and independent sources
• Resistor Color Code

Blk BR Red Or Yel Gr Blu Vi Gry Wht

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
First Band – “Tens” Column
Second Band – “Ones” Column
Third Band – Power of 10
Fourth Band – Tolerance:
Gold = 5% , Silver = 10%
Fifth Band – Ignore for now

In this example: 10 x 102 =1000 Ohms +/- 5%

Example
• Calculate the power supplied or absorbed by each element in the figure.

If P1=-50W ,P2= 20W and P3= 25W , is

this a valid circuit?

violates energy conservation law

• Basic Laws
– Ohm’s Law.
– Nodes, Branches, Loops and Meshes.
– Voltage, current and resistance measurement
– Kirchhoff’s Laws.
– Series Resistors and Voltage Division.
– Parallel Resistors and Current Division.
– Wye-Delta Transformations.
• Ohms Law
– voltage across a resistor is directly proportional to the current I flowing
through the resistor v  iR
– R = 0 (zero) short circuit , V=0
– R=  (infinite) open circuit
1 i
– Conductance ability to conduct electric current G 
R v 2
– The power dissipated by a resistor v
p  vi  i 2 R 
• Nodes, Branches , Loops and Mesh R
– A branch = a single element ,a source or a resistor or a capacitor or an inductor.
– A node =point of connection between two or more branches.
– A loop is any closed path in a circuit.
– A mesh is a loop which doesn’t contain an other loop inside it.
– Theorem of network topology
b l lindependent
b branches, n nodes, and  n  1 loops

Are the two circuit the same? No. of branches ,loops ,Meshes and Nodes
• Capacitor
– two conductors (electrodes) separated by an insulator (a dielectric. )
– can store charge.
– Stores energy in the form of electric field
Q A
C C 
– No electron
V crosses the ddielectric material.
– functions as a filter, passing alternating current and blocking direct current
– generally very small, so the most common units are microfarad, nanofarad and
picofarad.
– Energy stored in a capacitor:

• Inductor d
d emf   N
emf  
– stores energy in a magnetic fielddt dt

– Faraday’s Law:
– Lenz’s Law :the polarity of the induced voltage is such as to oppose the cause producing
it.
– Current through a coil creates a magnetic field as per Faraday’s Law, in turn creates a
di
voltage across the terminals of the coil. eL N 2 A
dt L 
l
– Mutual inductance ?
– Energy stored in an inductor:
• Kirchhoff’s Laws
– Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) sum of currents entering a node (or a closed
boundary) is zero.
• Conservation of charge
N

i
n 1
n 0

v n 0
– Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) sum of all voltages
m 1 around a closed path (or loop)
is zero.
• Conservation of energy
• Current entering through +ve terminal voltage +ve else –ve
N
– Series Resistors
Req and
 R1Voltage    R N   Rn
 R2   Division
n 1
– Parallel Resistors and Current Division
1

1

1
  
1 v iR eq
in  
Req R1 R2 RN Rn Rn

– Series and parallel of L and C

• How?
– Wye-Delta Transformations
Delta -> Star Star -> Delta

R1 R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
Rb Rc Ra 
R1  R1
( Ra  Rb  Rc )

Rc R a R1 R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
R2  Rb 
( Ra  Rb  Rc ) R2

Ra Rb R1 R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
R3  Rc 
( Ra  Rb  Rc ) R3
• Source Transformation
– Ideally:
• An ideal current source has the voltage necessary to provide its rated current
• An ideal voltage source supplies the current necessary to provide its rated voltage
– Practice:
• A real voltage source cannot supply arbitrarily large amounts of current
• A real current source cannot have an arbitrarily large terminal voltage
– Bad practice
• Voltage source in parallel, why?
• Current source in series, why?
– Equivalent Source
• Voltage in series
• Current in parallel V Ideal V
RS iL Ideal
– For ideal source no transformation V +
L source
Practical
L
source
Practical
V + R source source
iL Ideal iL S
— V L
iL Ideal
source i R
source L
+ Practical (a) (b) (c)
iS R R source Practical L L

L
source Fig. 2.19 — (a) Practical voltage source connected to a
Si
V
V R load resistor
L
(a) (b) (c) L L
(b) V-I curve for ideal and practical voltage source
Fig. 2.20 — (a) Practical current source connected to a (c) Terminal voltage curve for ideal and practical
load resistor voltage source
• Nodal Analysis
– Choose a reference node as ground (v=0) with many branches (good practice)
– Apply KCL for the non-reference nodes (super nodes)
– Node under consideration considered to be at higher voltage unless the branch is
current source
– If supernode voltage constrained equations give remaining equations

– Advantages of Nodal Analysis

• Solves directly for node voltages.
• Current sources are easy.
• Voltage sources are either very easy or somewhat difficult.
• Works best for circuits with few nodes.
• Works for any circuit.
• Mesh(Loop) Analysis
– Identify meshes
– Indicate direction of current for each mesh
– Write KVL for each mesh
– If supermesh extra equations from current constraint of supermesh branch
• Advantages of Loop Analysis
– Solves directly for some currents.
– Voltage sources are easy.
– Current sources are either very easy or somewhat difficult.
– Works best for circuits with few loops.
• Supernode vs supermesh
• Useful Circuit Analysis Techniques
– Linearity
– Electric circuits are linear generally
– Linearity leads to many useful properties of circuits:
• Superposition: the effect of each source can be considered separately.
• Equivalent circuits: Any linear network can be represented by an
equivalent source and resistance (Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems)
– Superposition
• “in any linear circuit containing multiple independent sources, the current
or voltage at any point in the circuit may be calculated as the algebraic
sum of the individual contributions of each source acting alone.”
• Voltage source =short
• Current source = open
• Solve the resulting circuit using your favorite techniques.
– Nodal analysis
– Loop analysis

4m 12V
2kW
A - +
2m 1kW 2kW
A I0
 – Thevenin’s theorems
• Any circuit with sources (dependent and/or independent) and resistors can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit containing a single voltage source and a single
resistor
• Thevenin’s theorem implies that we can replace arbitrarily complicated networks
with simple networks for purposes of analysis
RTh

+
Voc
-

Circuit with independent sources Thevenin equivalent circuit

RTh

Circuit with no independent sources Thevenin equivalent circuit

• Norton’s theorem
– Very similar to Thevenin’s theorem
– It simply states that any circuit with sources (dependent and/or independent)
and resistors can be replaced by an equivalent circuit containing a single
current source and a single resistor

Isc

Circuit with one or more Norton equivalent circuit

independent sources

RTh

Circuit with no independent Norton equivalent circuit

sources
• Motivation of applying the Thevenin’s theorem and Norton’s theorem:
– Sometimes, in a complex circuit, we are only interested in working out the voltage
/current or power being consumed by a single load (resistor);
– We can then treat the rest of the circuit (excluding the interested load) as a voltage
(current) source concatenated with a source resistor;
– Simplify our analysis.
• The Thevenin’s theorem:
– Given a linear circuit, rearrange it in the form of two networks of A and B connected by
two wires. Define Voc as the open-circuit voltage which appears across the terminals of A
when B is disconnected. Then all currents and voltage in B will remain unchanged, if we
replace all the independent current or voltage source in A by an independent voltage
source which is in series with a resistor (R Th).
• The Norton’s Theorem:
– Given a linear circuit, rearrange it in the form of two networks of A and B connected by
two wires. Define isc as the short-circuit current which appears across the terminals of A
when B is disconnected. Then all currents and voltage in B will remain unchanged, if we
replace all the independent current or voltage source in A by an independent current
source isc which is in parallel with a resistor (RN).
• Be aware that when we apply both of the theorems, if either network contains a dependent
source, the control variable must be in the same network as the dependent source.
• Thevenin’s and Norton’s are related by a source transform
• Application of Thevenin’s theorem when there are only independent sources.
step : 1) Determine vocof two connection points between network A and
network B.
2) Determine RTH of two connection points by replacing the voltage source
by a short-circuit or the current source by a open-circuit.
• Similarly, for Norton’s Theorem
steps : 1) Determine vsc between the two connection points between network
A and B.
2) Determine RN by two connection points by replacing the voltage
source by a short- circuit or the current source by an open circuit.
• Maximum power transfer

R TH RL 2
PL  2 VTH
RTH  RL 

+
-
VL
RL
dPL 
 VTH 
2 RTH  RL 2
 2 RL RTH  RL  

V TH (L O A D ) dRL RTH  RL  4 
  

S O U R CE RTH  RL  2 RL  0  RL*  RTH

2
VTH
PL (max) 
4 RTH

• Practical aspect
– Wave reflection power system
– Antenna communication
• Practical brain storming
– If R1>R2 and are connected in parallel supplied by voltage source
a) Which one consumes more current
b) Which one consumes more power
c) If R1=0
– R1>R2 and are connected in series supplied by voltage source
a) Which one consumes more current
b) Which one consumes more power
c) If R1=0
– If R1>R2 and are connected in parallel supplied by current source
a) Which one consumes more current
b) Which one consumes more power
c) If R1=0 what happens to the source
– R1>R2 and are connected in series supplied by current source
a) Which one consumes more current
b) Which one consumes more power
c) If R1=0 what happens to the source
d) If R1=open what happens to the source
a) What happens when voltage sources are connected in parallel
b) What happens when current sources are connected in series
Good Luck