Modeling of Rotating Mechanical Systems

09/13/2023 1
 Rotational Motion

• An important mechanical concept

• A body rotates when there is a net torque acting on
it.
• Basically, torque has the ability to rotate objects
about an axis.
• A torque is proportional to the force X distance from
the axis of rotation
• Applies in many machines
– Wheel
– axle
 Rotational Mechanical Elements

• As with translating mechanical systems, there

are three fundamental physical elements that
comprise rotating mechanical systems:
– inertia elements,
– Spring elements, and
– friction elements.
 Analogy to Translating Systems

• The quantities used in rotating systems are

very similar to those in translating systems.
• The table below lists the analogous quantities
for rotating and translating systems.
Rotating Systems Translating Systems
Quantity Unit Quantity
Moment of Inertia - J kg-m² Mass - m kg
Torque - τ N-m Force - f N
Angle - θ rad Length - l m
Angular velocity - rad/sec Velocity - m/s
Angular acceleration - rad/sec² Acceleration – m/s2
Spring Constant - Kr N-m/rad Spring Constant - k N/m
Friction Coefficient - Br N-m-s/rad Friction Coefficient - b N-s/m
 Inertia Elements
• In rotating mechanical systems, the inertia elements are
masses that rotate and are characterized by moment of
inertia.

• The moment of inertia for some common shapes are given

next.
 Inertia Elements
• Cylinder, Image m.o.i., J
radius=r, mass=m
Rotating about center axis

• Solid Sphere,
radius=r, mass=m
Rotating about center

• Uniform Rod,
length=ℓ, mass=m
Rotating about end
 Inertia Elements
• Uniform Rod Image m.o.i., J
length=ℓ, mass=m
Rotating about center

• Mass at end of massless rod,

length=ℓ, mass=m
Rotating about end
• The relationship between torque, moment of inertia and
angular acceleration is given by:

• Translating system equivalent:

 Spring Elements
• A rotational spring is an element that is
deformed (wound or unwound) in direct
proportion to the amount of torque applied.
• Ideal springs have no inertia.
 Spring Elements
• The relationship between torque, spring
constant and angle is given by:

• Translating system equivalent:

 Actual Rotational Springs
• Can you visualize how an applied torque to wind (or unwind) the spring
would be opposed?

• from: http://dudekbock.com/springs.html
 Springs - Shaft
• A shaft connected between two elements can also
act as a rotational spring.
 Schematic for Rotating Spring
• A rotational spring is drawn as a shaft (with an
associated spring constant)
 Friction Elements

• As with the translating systems, friction is the most difficult of the

three elements to model accurately and we will generally only
consider viscous friction.
• The constitutive equation relating angular velocity, torque and friction
coefficient is

• Translating system equivalent:

• A rotation friction element often consists of an object moving in a

fluid, very similar to the translating dashpot , but with a rotary motion
• An example of such a device
is used in some exercise
equipment. The photo
below shows an exercise
trainer with a paddlewheel
in liquid (the blue circular
object). As you exercise, the
vanes of the paddlewheel
move against the fluid,
creating a torque in
resistance to your motion.
 Rotation Systems – An Example
• A shaft is shown schematically as a spring, the friction Br1 is
drawn as a dashpot, while the friction Br2 is shown as hash
marks against fixed reference frame (ground).
 Alternative Schematic
• The shaft is not drawn as a spring but is shown to be a spring
element with the label Kr; both friction elements are shown as
dashpots
 Key points

• Three elements were introduced, spring elements, friction

elements and inertial elements (rotating masses).
• An ideal rotational spring has no inertia and a linear
relationship between torque and angular displacement.
• For viscous friction there is a linear relationship between
torque and angular velocity. Friction may either be between
two surfaces (depicted as hash marks) or between two
objects (depicted as a dashpot).
• An ideal dashpot is also massless.
• Rotating masses have a linear relationship between torque
and angular acceleration.
 Key Concept: Constitutive Equations for
Rotating Mechanical Elements

• Spring:

• Friction:

• Inertia:
 Developing Mathematical Models of
Rotating Mechanical Systems
• Apply D'Alembert's Law
• Use Free Body Diagrams
• It follows closely, and is drawn from, the
techniques used to model translating mechanical
systems
• It is assumed that you are familiar with those
techniques.
• Note: We can also combine translating and
rotating systems
 D'Alembert's Law

• For rotating mechanical systems

• Translating system equivalent:

• If we consider the J·α term to be a torque, we are left with

D'Alembert's law

• Translating system equivalent:

 Inertial Torque
• The J·α term is called the D'Alembert's torque, or inertial
torque.
• The inertial torque is always in a direction opposite to the
defined positive direction.
 Free Body Diagrams

• Apply D'Alembert's law to develop equations of motion for

rotating mechanical systems through the use of free body
diagrams.
• To do this we draw a free body diagram for each unknown
position in a system.
• This is very similar to the way this is done for translating
mechanical systems
 Example: Equations of Motion for a Rotating
System

• In the system shown one flywheel (J1) is attached by a flexible

shaft (Kr) to ground (the unmoving wall) and has an applied
torque, τa. A second flywheel (J2) is driven by friction between
the two flywheels (Br1). The second flywheel also has friction
to the ground (Br2). Derive equations of motion for the system
shown.
 Solution
• First we must define our variables of motion.
• In this case there are two - the angles of the flywheel. It is
generally a good idea to define the variables in the same
direction, so we arbitrarily define them as positive in the
counterclockwise direction.
 Free body diagram at θ1
• There are 4 torques acting:
1. The external torque, τa, clockwise.
2. The torque due to Kr.
• If θ1 increases (counterclockwise), Kr causes a clockwise torque on J1.
• The resulting torque is Kr·θ1, clockwise.
3. The torque due to Br1.
• If θ1 increases, the resulting torque on J1 is Br1·ω1 in the clockwise direction.
• If θ2 increases, the resulting torque on J1 is Br1·ω2 in the counterclockwise direction.
• The torque due to Br1 is thus Br1·(ω1-ω2), clockwise.
4. The torque due to J1 (don't forget this - the inertial torque!).
• The resulting torque is J1·α1 clockwise (the inertial torque is always in the opposite
direction from the define positive direction)
 Free body diagram at θ2
• There are 3 torques acting:
1. The torque due to Br2.
• If θ2 increases (counterclockwise), the resulting torque is Br2·ω2, clockwise.
2. The torque due to Br1.
• If θ1 increases, the resulting torque on J2 is Br1·ω1 in the counterclockwise direction.
• If θ2 increases, the resulting torque on J2 is Br1·ω2 in the clockwise direction.
• The torque due to Br1 is thus Br1·(ω2-ω1), clockwise (or Br1·(ω1-ω2)
counterclockwise).
(Note: this result is trivial because the torque on one end of Br1 must be equal and
opposite to the torque on the other end (calculated for the free body diagram for
θ1).)
3. The torque due to J2 (the inertial torque).
• The resulting torque is J2·α2 clockwise.
Systems with Gears
• Gears perform many functions
– gears that increase or reduce angular velocity (while simultaneously
decreasing or increasing torque, such that energy is conserved).
– In many ways gears act in rotating systems as do levers in translating
systems.
– A picture of gears is shown below, along with a schematic
representation.

photograph from: http://www.geardesign.co.uk/spur-gears.htm

 Geometrical Relationship
• the geometric relationship that results from the path that the arc
lengths along their circumference must be equal as the gears turn

• Since the arc lengths (shown with a heavy blue line) must be equal
r1θ1 = r2θ2 = arc length
• If we had defined θ2 in the opposite direction, this expression would
have a negative sign (r1θ1 = -r2θ2).
 Torque Relationship
• Define a force between the gears termed a "contact force."
• This force must be equal and opposite across the interface
between the two gears, but its direction is arbitrary.
• Draw free body diagrams with a contact force where the gears
meet.
• The contact force is tangent to both gears and so produces a
torque that is equal to the radius times the force.
 Torque balance
• Do a torque balance on each of the two gears

• Gear 1

• Gear 2
• Since we are not usually interested in fc, we remove it from
the equations and we get

• Note: The same relationship exists even if the contact forces

are defined in the opposite direction (up on gear 1, down on
gear 2)
 Example: Modeling of a system with gears

• In the system below, a torque, τa, is applied to gear 1 (with

moment of inertia J1). It, in turn, is connected to gear 2 (with
moment of inertia J2) and a rotational friction Br. The angle θ1
is defined positive clockwise, θ2 is defined positive clockwise.
The torque acts in the direction of θ1.
• Derive a differential equation for the system below in terms of
θ1 (i.e., θ2 and fc should not be in the final result).
 Solution
• Start by drawing free body diagrams, including a contact force
that we will arbitrarily choose to be down on J1 and up on J2.
The directions of the reaction forces due to inertia and friction
are chosen, as always, opposite to the defined positive
direction.
• convert the force to a torque (note: we could have skipped
the previous step and done this directly)
• This yields the two equations of motion
• Solve for fc and eliminate it from the equations, but we also
need to eliminate θ2. To do this we use the relationship
between θ1 and θ2 (from equal arc lengths).
r1θ1 = -r2θ2
• Note that we have a negative sign here because of the way θ1
and θ2 were defined (if θ1 moves in the positive direction,
then θ2 is negative). When you use the arc length expression
you must be careful of signs.
• Put this into the equation for J1 and solve (in standard form with
the output (θ1) on the left, and the input (τa) on the right.

• Note: the same result is obtained independent of the chosen

direction for θ2 and fc.
• The final result from the example is important and deserves
some notice.
• The multiplication of J2 and Br by the square of the ratio of the
radii is a well known, and general phenomenon. If a load is
attached to a system through gears, the perceived effect is
multiplied by the square of the ratio of the radii. We can use
this to our advantage to make a load appear smaller (if we
have a weak driving torque - for example, a small motor).
• The reason bicycles have gears is so that the load perceived by
the bicycle rider can be kept relatively constant even as s/he
goes up or down hills.
Systems with both Rotation and Translation
• Systems that have parts that rotate and translate are
handled in much the same way as with gears:
– Define relationships between rotation and position (i.e., relate arc
length of translating elements to angle of rotating elements)
– Define a contact force between moving objects.
– After those steps are accomplished, all that is needed is to draw free
body diagrams. The only difference here is that if an element both
translates and rotates, that two free body diagrams are needed for
that element: one that rotates, and one that translates, but these
motions can be considered independently.
 Example: Elements that rotate and translate

• Derive equations of motion for the system shown along with

an expression relating horizontal position to angle of rotation.
There is a force, fa, applied to a mass m. A uniform cylinder
sits on top of the mass and is free to roll and translate, but it
rolls without slipping.
 Solution
• First we need to define positions, in this case three of
them. We need to define one for the position of the
mass, m, and one for the angle through which the
cylinder has turned about its center. We also need
to define one for the lateral position of the cylinder.
 Free body diagrams
• Now we can draw free body diagrams (again, we need three),
and write the equations of motion. Here we have taken fc to
be to the right on m, and to the left on the cylinder. Torques
are taken about the center of mass.
 Free body
diagram at x1
Free body
around θ
 Free body
diagram at x2

• Note: this uses mass of cylinder

• The last thing we need is a relationship between
position and arc length for the cylinder. In this case it
is not so obvious, but is easily found with a little
thought.
– If x1 changes while x2 remains constant, then r·θ=x1
– If x2 changes while x1 remains constant, then r·θ=-x2
– Therefore, by superposition
r·θ=x1-x2
 Key Concept: Solving problems involving gears
and/or systems that rotate and translate

• When solving problems with gears, you always need to

include two facts:
1. Relate arc lengths (for gears r1θ1 = r2θ2; for rotation and translation
use rθ=x).
2. There is a contact force (equal and opposite) across the interface.
• If you are not using both of these relationships, you probably
won't be able to solve the problem.
• The motion of any body can be separated into two
independent components, translation and rotation. If an
element both rotates and translates a separate freebody
diagram is needed for each component.
• r·θ=x1-x2
 Solution to Class Exercise

• Model Equations:
• (1)
•
•
•
• (2)

• (3)

• (4)

• Note: Four equation and Four unknowns – x1, x2, fc and ϴ

• We can get a De for any of the unknowns by elimination (of the others)
• Task: For x2, eliminate x1, fc and ϴ

• Use (3) to get fc in terms of x2

• (5)

• Use (4) to get ϴ in terms of x1 and x2

•
• Now we can rewrite equations (1) and (2) in terms of x1 and x2

• Or
• (6)

• Or
• (7)
• Eliminate x1 using (7),
•

• Rewrite (6) using x2

• Collect like terms
 Other Examples
xi(t) R
J
k
k2
Input
 b
u(t)
M
Kr
J k1
R
Br

r2
J
r1 Kr Br

k b

i(t) m