Principles of

Major
Manufacturing
Processes

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FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL FORMING

1. Material Behavior in Metal Forming
2. Overview of Metal Forming
3. Temperature in Metal Forming
4. Strain Rate Sensitivity
5. Friction and Lubrication in Metal Forming
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Metal Forming
Large group of manufacturing processes in which
plastic deformation is used to change the shape of
metal workpieces
 The tool, usually called a die, applies stresses that
exceed the yield strength of the metal
 The metal takes a shape determined by the
geometry of the die
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Stresses in Metal Forming

 Stresses to plastically deform the metal are usually

compressive
 Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
 However, some forming processes
 Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
 Others bend the metal (tensile and compressive)
 Still others apply shear stresses (shear spinning)
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Material Properties in Metal Forming

 Desirable material properties:

 Low yield strength
 High ductility
 These properties are affected by temperature:
 Ductility increases and yield strength decreases
when work temperature is raised
 Other factors:
 Strain rate and friction
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Basic Types of Deformation Processes

1. Bulk deformation (stock has high V/A)

 Rolling
 Forging
 Extrusion
 Wire and bar drawing
2. Sheet metalworking (stock has low V/A)
 Bending
 Deep drawing
 Cutting
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Bulk Deformation Processes

 Characterized by significant deformations and

massive shape changes
 "Bulk" refers to workparts with relatively low
surface area‑to‑volume ratios
 Starting work shapes include cylindrical billets and
rectangular bars
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Rolling

Basic bulk deformation processes: rolling

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Forging

Basic bulk deformation processes: forging

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Extrusion

Basic bulk deformation processes: (c) extrusion

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Wire and Bar Drawing

Basic bulk deformation processes: (d) drawing

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Sheet Metalworking

 Forming and related operations performed on metal

sheets, strips, and coils
 High surface area‑to‑volume ratio of starting metal,
which distinguishes these from bulk deformation
 Often called pressworking because presses perform
these operations
 Parts are called stampings
 Usual tooling: punch and die
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Sheet Metal Bending

Basic sheet metalworking operations: bending

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Deep Drawing

Basic sheet metalworking operations: drawing

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Shearing of Sheet Metal

Basic sheet metalworking operations: shearing

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Material Behavior in Metal Forming

 Plastic region of stress-strain curve is primary
interest because material is plastically deformed
 In plastic region, metal's behavior is expressed by
the flow curve:

Y f  K n

where K = strength coefficient;

and n = strain hardening
exponent
 Flow curve based on true stress
and true strain
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Flow Stress

 For most metals at room temperature, strength

increases when deformed due to strain hardening
 Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress required
to continue deforming the material

Y f  K n

where Yf = flow stress, i.e., the yield strength as

a function of strain
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Average Flow Stress

 Determined by integrating the flow curve equation
between zero and the final strain value defining the
range of interest

_ K n
Yf 
1 n
_
where Y f = average flow stress; and  = maximum
strain during deformation process. n = strain
hardening exponent
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Temperature in Metal Forming

 For any metal, K and n in the flow curve depend on
temperature
 Both strength (K) and strain hardening (n) are
reduced at higher temperatures
 In addition, ductility is increased at higher
temperatures
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Temperature in Metal Forming

 Any deformation operation can be accomplished
with lower forces and power at elevated
temperature
 Three temperature ranges in metal forming:
 Cold working
 Warm working
 Hot working
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1. Cold Working
 Performed at room temperature or slightly above
 Many cold forming processes are important mass
production operations
 Minimum or no machining usually required
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Advantages of Cold Forming

 Better accuracy, closer tolerances

 Better surface finish
 Strain hardening increases strength and hardness
 No heating of work required
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Disadvantages of Cold Forming

 Higher forces and power required in the
deformation operation
 Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of
forming that can be done
 In some cases, metal must be annealed to allow
further deformation
 In other cases, metal is simply not ductile
enough to be cold worked
 Impact of Cold Work
As cold work is increased
• Yield strength (y) increases.
• Tensile strength (TS) increases.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.

Adapted from Fig. 8.20,

Callister & Rethwisch 4e.

low carbon steel

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 Mechanical Property Alterations
Due to Cold Working
• What are the values of yield strength, tensile strength &
ductility after cold working Cu?

Copper
Cold
Work

Do = 15.2 mm Dd = 12.2 mm

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 Mechanical Property Alterations
Due to Cold Working
• What are the values of yield strength, tensile strength &
ductility for Cu for %CW = 35.6%?

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tensile strength (MPa)

yield strength (MPa)

700 800

ductility (%EL)
40
500 600
300 MPa Cu
300 Cu 400 340 MPa 20
Cu 7%
100 200 00
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work

y = 300 MPa TS = 340 MPa %EL = 7%

Adapted from Fig. 8.19, Callister & Rethwisch 4e. (Fig. 8.19 is adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties
and Selection: Iron and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th ed., B. Bardes (Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1978, p. 226;
and Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H.
Baker (Managing Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1979, p. 276 and 327.) 26
 Effect of Heat Treating After Cold Working
• 1 hour treatment at Tanneal...
decreases TS and increases %EL.
• Effects of cold work are nullified!
annealing temperature (ºC)
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 • Three Annealing stages:
tensile strength (MPa)

600 60
tensile strength

ductility (%EL)
50 1. Recovery
500
40 2. Recrystallization
3. Grain Growth
400 30

ductility 20
Adapted from Fig. 8.22, Callister & Rethwisch
4e. (Fig. 8.22 is adapted from G. Sachs and
300 K.R. van Horn, Practical Metallurgy, Applied
Metallurgy, and the Industrial Processing of
Re Re Gr Ferrous and Nonferrous Metals and Alloys,
co c ry a in
ve sta Gr American Society for Metals, 1940, p. 139.)
ry lliz ow
ati th
on
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 Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
1. Recovery

•During recovery, some of the stored internal strain energy

is relieved. In addition, physical properties such as
electrical and thermal conductivities are recovered to their
precold-worked states.

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 Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
2. Recrystallization
• New grains are formed that:
-- have low dislocation densities
-- are small in size
-- consume and replace parent cold-worked grains.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 8.21 (a),(b),
Callister &
Rethwisch 4e.
(Fig. 8.21 (a),(b)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

33% cold New crystals

worked nucleate after
brass 3 sec. at 580C.
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 As Recrystallization Continues…
• All cold-worked grains are eventually consumed/replaced.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 8.21 (c),(d),
Callister &
Rethwisch 4e.
(Fig. 8.21 (c),(d)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 4 After 8
seconds seconds

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 Anisotropy in y
• Can be induced by rolling a polycrystalline metal
- before rolling - after rolling
Adapted from Fig. 8.11,
Callister & Rethwisch 4e.
(Fig. 8.11 is from W.G. Moffatt,
G.W. Pearsall, and J. Wulff,
The Structure and Properties
of Materials, Vol. I, Structure,
p. 140, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1964.)

rolling direction
235 m
- isotropic - anisotropic
since grains are since rolling affects grain
equiaxed & orientation and shape.
randomly oriented.

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 Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
3. Grain Growth
• At longer times, average grain size increases.
-- Small grains shrink (and ultimately disappear)
-- Large grains continue to grow
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
Adapted from
Fig. 8.21 (d),(e),
Callister &
Rethwisch 4e.
(Fig. 8.21 (d),(e)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 8 s, After 15 min,

580ºC 580ºC
coefficient dependent
• Empirical Relation:
on material and T.
exponent typ. ~ 2
grain diam. elapsed time
at time t.
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 TR = recrystallization
temperature

TR

Adapted from Fig. 8.22,

Callister & Rethwisch 4e.

º
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 Recrystallization Temperature
TR = recrystallization temperature = temperature
at which recrystallization just reaches
completion in 1 h.
0.3Tm < TR < 0.6Tm

For a specific metal/alloy, TR depends on:

• %CW -- TR decreases with increasing %CW
• Purity of metal -- TR decreases with
increasing purity

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2. Warm Working

 Performed at temperatures above room temperature

but below recrystallization temperature
 Dividing line between cold working and warm
working often expressed in terms of melting point:
 0.3Tm, where Tm = melting point (absolute
temperature) for metal
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Advantages of Warm Working

 Lower forces and power than in cold working
 More intricate work geometries possible
 Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated
 Low spring back

Disadvantage:
1. Scaling of part surface
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3. Hot Working
 Deformation at temperatures above the
recrystallization temperature
 Recrystallization temperature = about one‑half of
melting point on absolute scale
 In practice, hot working usually performed
somewhat above 0.6Tm
 Metal continues to soften as temperature
increases above 0.6Tm, enhancing advantage of
hot working above this level
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Why Hot Working?

Capability for substantial plastic deformation of the

metal ‑ far more than possible with cold working or
warm working
 Why?
 Strength coefficient (K) is substantially less than
at room temperature
 Strain hardening exponent (n) is zero
(theoretically)
 Ductility is significantly increased
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Advantages of Hot Working

 Workpart shape can be significantly altered
 Lower forces and power required
 Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be
hot formed
 Strength properties of product are generally
isotropic
 No work hardening occurs during forming
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Disadvantages of Hot Working

 Lower dimensional accuracy in case of bulk

forming
 Higher total energy required (due to the thermal
energy to heat the workpiece)
 Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer surface
finish
 Shorter tool life