Hardware: The CPU

& Storage

Lecture 4 4
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 Chapter Topics

UNIT 4A: Processing: The System Unit,

Microprocessors, & Main Memory
4.1 Microchips, Miniaturization, & Mobility
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4.2 Representing Data Electronically

4.3 Inside the System Unit: Power Supply, Motherboard, & Microprocessors
4.4 The Central Processing Unit & the Machine Cycle
4.5 Memory
4.6 Expansion Cards, Bus Lines, & Ports
UNIT 4B: Secondary Storage
4.7 Secondary Storage
4.8 Future Developments in Processing & Storage 2
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 UNIT 4A: Processing: The System Unit, Microprocessors,
& Main Memory

• Electronic circuitry has remained basically the same over recent years.
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• A circuit is a closed path followed or capable of being followed by

an electric current.
• Vacuum tubes used wire circuits inside them to facilitate
the flow of electrons.
• Transistors have replaced vacuum tubes.

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 4.1 Microchips,
Miniaturization,
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& Mobility

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 The Since the early 1970s, microchips have gotten smaller and smaller yet more and
more powerful and faster.

• A transistor is a tiny electronic switch that can be turned “on” or

“off” millions of times per second.
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• Transistors form part of an integrated circuit: all the parts of an

electronic circuit embedded on a single silicon chip.
• Integrated circuits are solid state (no moving parts).

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 The transistor was successfully demonstrated on
December 23, 1947 at Bell Laboratories in Murray
Hill, New Jersey. Bell Labs is the research arm of
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American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T). The three

individuals credited with the invention of
the transistor were William Shockley, John Bardeen
and Walter Brattain.

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 • Silicon: A semiconductor made of clay and sand.
• Semiconductor: A material whose electrical properties are intermediate between a
good conductor and a nonconductor of electricity.
• Perfect underlayer for highly conductive,
complex circuits.
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• Microchips (Microprocessors) are made

from semiconductors.
• Chip: A tiny piece of silicon that contains
millions of microminiature integrated
electronic circuits.
Chip

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 • Miniaturization
• Microchips
• Store and process data in electronic devices
• for example, microprocessor, memory, logic, communications, graphics, and
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math coprocessor chips.

• Microprocessors
• The miniaturized circuitry of an entire computer processor (“brain”) on a single
chip
• Contains the central processing unit (CPU), which processes data into information
• The development of microchips and processors has enabled the
development of small, mobile electronic devices.
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 • System Unit
• The case that contains the computer’s electronic components used to
process data.
• PCs: Tower or desktop; monitor is separate.
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• Laptops: Monitor is attached to the system unit, like a clamshell.

• Tablets: Usually includes a touch-screen interface.
• Smartphones: Handheld system units.

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 4.2 Representing Data
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Electronically

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 Binary Numbers (1)
Data is represented in a computer by binary code.
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 Binary Numbers (2)
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 Binary Numbers (3)

In binary code, write:

3
8
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10
13
16
20
32

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 Hexadecimal numbers
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 • Binary coding schemes assign a unique binary code to each character.
• ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
• Requires 7 or 8 bits per character, depending on the version
• 8-bit Extended ASCII provides 256 characters
• Commonly used for microcomputers
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• Ex. 0 is presented 48, 1 – 49, 2 – 50

• Ex. A – 65, B – 66, C - 67
• Ex. A – 97, b – 98, c – 99
• For more http://www.asciitable.com
• Unicode
• Requires 16 bits per character
• Handles 65,536 characters—used for Chinese, Arabic and Japanese

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 • Machine Language: The computer’s “native language”
• A binary-type programming language (0s and 1s) built into the
CPU that is run directly by the computer.
• Each CPU type has its own machine language
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• Language Translators: The computer’s system software converts

higher-level language instructions and data into machine language
so that the processor can “understand” what to do.

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Using Information Technology, 11e

4.3 Inside the System Unit

Power Supply, Motherboard, & Microprocessors

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 Terms Definitions
Bay Opening in the computer cabinet used for the installation of electrical
equipment.
Power Supply This converts AC to DC to run the computer.
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Surge Protector Protects the computer from being damaged by power spikes. Plug your
computer into one.
UPS
Uninterruptible Power Supply. Battery-operated device that provides power for
a limited time when there is a blackout.
Motherboard
Main system board of the computer (also systemboard).
Microprocessor
Chipset Miniaturized circuitry of a computer processor.
Groups of interconnected chips on the motherboard that control information
flow between the microprocessor and other system components connected to .18
the motherboard.
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 One View of a
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Motherboard

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 • Traditional microcomputer microprocessors are Intel and
AMD.
• Multicore processors (2, 4, 6, 8) have more than one
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processor “core” on a single silicon chip, which

allows computers to run faster.
• Special processors are made for portable devices.
• A graphics processing unit (GPU) is a
specialized processor used to manipulate three-
dimensional (3-D) computer graphics.

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 Processing Speeds
• Every microprocessor contains a system clock, which controls how fast
all the operations within a computer take place (the chip’s processing
speed).
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• Older CPU processing speeds are in megahertz.

• 1 MHz = 1 million cycles per second
• Current CPU processing speeds are in gigahertz.
• 1 GHz = 1 billion cycles per second
• The faster a CPU runs, the more power it consumes, and the more heat it
generates.

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 4.4 The Central Processing
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Unit & the Machine Cycle

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 • The CPU, for central processing unit, is the “brain” of the
computer; it follows the instructions of the software
(program) to manipulate data into information.
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• The CPU consists of two parts—(1) the control unit and

(2) the arithmetic/logic unit (ALU), both of which contain
registers, or high-speed storage areas.
• All are linked by a kind of electronic “roadway” called a
bus.

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Using Information Technology, 11e

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Using Information Technology, 11e

4.5 Memory

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 Memory
• Two type of storage: primary and secondary.
• Primary storage = “memory,” “main memory,” “RAM”;
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this type of memory is temporary and volatile.

• Secondary storage = hard disks and flash memory units;
this type of memory is relatively permanent and
nonvolatile.

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 Memory Chips Explanation
RAM Random Access Memory chips are volatile and hold:
a. Software instructions
b. Data before & after the CPU processes it
ROM Read Only Memory
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c. Cannot be written on or erased without special equipment

d. Are loaded at factory with fixed (permanent) start-up instructions (BIOS),
that tell the computer how to load the operating system
CMOS Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor
e. Powered by a battery
f. Contains time, date, calendar, boot password
Flash Nonvolatile memory that can be erased and reprogrammed more than once
g. Doesn’t require a battery
h. Used in newer PCs for BIOS instructions

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 Speeding up Processing: Cache
• The CPU works much faster than RAM, so it often must wait for
information
• Cache temporarily stores instructions and data that the processor uses
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frequently to speed up processing

• Level 1 cache is part of the microprocessor
• Holds 8 to 128 KB
• Faster than Level 2 cache
• Level 2 cache is external cache
• Holds 64 kb to 16 MB
• Level 3 cache is on the motherboard
• Comes on very high-end computers
• Holds 2 to 8 MB
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 • Virtual Memory—also used to speed up processing.
• This type of memory is unused hard disk or optical (CD) space that
the processor uses to extend the capacity of RAM.
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• The processor goes first to L1 cache, then L2 cache, then RAM,

then virtual memory.
• Each type of memory is slower than its predecessor.

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 UNIT 4B:

• Secondary storage hardware includes devices that

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permanently hold data and information as well as programs.

• Online, or cloud, storage is also available, but we still use
secondary storage hardware.

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Using Information Technology, 11e

4.7 Secondary Storage

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 read/write
head

Hard Disks: Still the major secondary-storage

device for desktop/tower computers.
• Thin, rigid metal, glass, or ceramic platters covered with a substance that
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allows data to be held in the form of magnetized spots.

• The more platters there are, the higher the drive capacity.
• Store data in tracks, sectors, and clusters.
• Formatting creates a file allocation table that maps files to clusters.
• Drive heads ride on .000001” cushion of air, and can crash!
• Important data should always be backed up!

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 • Hard Disks (continued)
• Hard Disk Types:
• Nonremovable hard disk – Also known as a fixed disk; is housed in the
microcomputer system unit and is used to store nearly all programs and most data
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files. Usually consists of several metallic or glass platters, from 1 to 5.25 inches
(most commonly 3.5 inches) in diameter, stacked on a spindle, with data stored on
both sides. Read/write heads, one for each side of each platter, are mounted on an
access arm that moves back and forth to the right location on the platter.
• External hard disk – Freestanding disk drive (portable); usually connected via
USB.
• RAID – redundant array of independent disks; for large computer systems.

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 Flash & Solid-State Storage
• Flash memory and solid-state memory have become the most important form of
mobile secondary storage.
• Disk drives (hard disks or CDs/DVDs) all involve some moving parts—and
moving parts can break. By contrast, flash memory has no moving parts; it is
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“solid state.” Flash memory is also nonvolatile—it retains data even when the
power is turned off.
• Flash memory media are available in three forms:
• Some tablets, laptops, desktops, and servers feature a solid-state drive (SSD), which uses
flash memory to store data, instructions ,and information.
• Flash memory cards, or flash RAM cards, are removable and reusable storage media that
are inserted into a flash memory slot in a digital camera, notebook, smartphone, or other
mobile device.
• A USB flash drive consists of a finger-size module of reusable flash memory that plugs
into the USB ports of nearly any microcomputer.
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 Smart Card: pocket-size card with integrated circuits.
• Resembles ‫تشبه‬a credit card but contains a microprocessor and memory
chips
• May function on three levels: credit, debit, and/or personal information
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• Storage capacity: around 10 MBs

• Contact smart cards
• Must be swiped through card readers
• Can wear out from use
• Contactless smart cards
• Read when held in front of a low-powered laser

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 • Online Secondary Storage (Cloud Storage)
• Allows you to use the Internet to back up your data
• Sign up with a vendor and receive access to software and applications that allow
you to upload your data to that company’s server
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 4.8 Future Developments in
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Processing & Storage

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 Description of Processing Technology
Nanotechnology • Tiny machines work at a molecular level to
make nanocircuits
Optical computing
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• Uses lasers and light, not electricity

DNA computing
• Uses strands of synthetic DNA to store data
Quantum computing • Based on quantum mechanics and stores
information using particle states
Better batteries • Wireless charging of batteries, longer-
lasting batteries
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 Future Developments in Secondary Storage
• Higher-density disks
• Perpendicular recording technology: stacking magnetic bits vertically on
the surface of a platter (instead of horizontally, as usual)
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• Molecular electronics– storage at the subatomic ‫ جسيم‬level

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