Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology

Seventh Edition
Elaine N. Marieb

Chapter 12-13
Blood &
The Cardiovascular
System

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Blood

 The only fluid tissue in the human body

 Taste, Odor, 5x thicker than water
 Living cells = formed elements
 Non-living matrix = plasma (90% water)

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 Physical Characteristics of Blood
 Color range
 Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red
 Oxygen-poor blood is dull red
 pH must remain between 7.35–7.45
 Slightly alkaline
 Blood temperature is slightly higher than body
temperature
 5-6 Liters or about 6 quarts /body

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 10.2
 Functions of Blood
• Transport nutrients, oxygen, hormones and
wastes
• Promotes homeostasis
• Maintain homeostasis of interstitial fluid
• Distributes heat
 Blood

Figure 10.1

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 Blood Plasma

 Composed of approximately 90
percent water
 Includes many dissolved
substances
 Nutrients, Salts (metal ions)
 Respiratory gases
 Hormones
 Proteins, Waste products
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 Plasma Proteins

 Clotting proteins – help to stem blood

loss when a blood vessel is injured
 Antibodies – help protect the body from
antigens

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 Formed Elements

 Erythrocytes = red blood cells (RBC)

 Leukocytes = white blood cells (WBC)
 Thrombocytes (Platelets) = cell
fragments

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Slide 10.5b
Slide 10.5c
 Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)

 The main function is to carry oxygen

 Anatomy of circulating erythrocytes
 Biconcave disks
 Essentially bags of hemoglobin
 Anucleate (no nucleus)
 Contain very few organelles
 Outnumber white blood cells 1000:1
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 Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)

 Crucial in the body’s defense against disease

 These are complete cells, with a nucleus and
organelles
 Able to move into and out of blood vessels
(diapedesis)
 Can respond to chemicals released by
damaged tissues
 Normal levels =4,000 to 11,000 cells/ml

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 Types of Leukocytes

 Granulocytes
 Granules in their
cytoplasm can be
stained
 Include
neutrophils,
eosinophils, and
basophils Figure 10.4

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 Types of Leukocytes

 Agranulocytes
 Lack visible
cytoplasmic
granules
 Include
lymphocytes and
monocytes
Figure 10.4

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 Granulocytes

 Neutrophils
 Multilobed nucleus with fine granules
 Act as phagocytes at active sites of infection
 Eosinophils
 Large brick-red cytoplasmic granules
 Found in repsonse to allergies and parasitic
worms
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 Granulocytes

 Basophils
 Have histamine-containing granules
 Initiate inflammation

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 Agranulocytes

 Lymphocytes
 Nucleus fills most of the cell
 Play an important role in the immune
response
 Monocytes
 Largest of the white blood cells
 Function as macrophages
 Important in fighting chronic infection
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 Thrombocytes (Platelets)

 Needed for the clotting process

 Normal platelet count = 300,000/mm3

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 Hematopoiesis – Blood Cell
Formation

 Occurs in red bone marrow

 All blood cells are derived from a
common stem cell (hemocytoblast)

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 Fate of Erythrocytes

 Unable to divide, grow, or synthesize

proteins
 Wear out in 100 to 120 days
 When worn out, are eliminated by
phagocytes in the spleen or liver
 Lost cells are replaced by division of
stem cells
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 Hemostasis

 Stoppage of blood flow

 Result of a break in a blood vessel
 Hemostasis involves three phases
 Vascular spasms
 Platelet plug formation
 Coagulation
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1. Vessel damage, blood loss
2. Vascular spasm.
•
 3. Platelet plug forms
4. Coagulation
•
•
 Vascular Spasms

 Anchored platelets release serotonin

 Serotonin causes blood vessel muscles
to spasm
 Spasms narrow the blood vessel,
decreasing blood loss

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 Platelet Plug Formation and
Coagulation
 Platelets become “sticky”
 Anchored platelets release chemicals to
attract more platelets
 Platelets pile up to form a platelet plug

 Blood protein clotting factors and calcium

ions trigger a clotting cascade
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 Blood Clotting

 Blood usually clots within 3 to 6 minutes

 The clot remains as tissue regenerates
 The clot is broken down after tissue
repair

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 Undesirable Clotting
 Thrombus
 A clot in an unbroken blood vessel
 Can be deadly in areas like the heart
(coronary thrombus) and brain (cerebral
thrombus)
 Embolus
 A thrombus that breaks away and floats freely
in the bloodstream
 Can later clog vessels in critical areas such as
the brain (cerebral embolus) and lung
(pulmonary embolus)
Slide
 Bleeding Disorders
 Hemophilia
 Hereditary bleeding disorder
 Normal clotting factors are missing

 Von Willebrand disease – tendency to

bleed and bruise easily; inherited

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 Blood Groups and Transfusions

 Large losses of blood have serious

consequences
 Loss of 15 to 30 percent causes weakness
 Loss of over 30 percent causes shock,
which can be fatal
 Transfusions are the only way to replace
blood quickly
 Transfused blood must be of the same blood
group
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 Human Blood Groups

 Blood contains genetically determined

proteins
 A foreign protein (antigen) may be
attacked by the immune system
 Blood is “typed” by using antibodies that
will cause blood with certain proteins to
clump (agglutination)

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 Human Blood Groups

 There are over 30 common red blood

cell antigens
 The most vigorous transfusion reactions
are caused by ABO and Rh blood group
antigens

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 ABO Blood Groups

 Based on the presence or absence of two

antigens
 Type A
 Type B
 The lack of these antigens is called
type O

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Blood Types Determine Blood
Compatibility

Figure 7.11
 ABO Blood Groups

 The presence of both A and B is called

type AB
 The presence of either A or B is called
types A and B, respectively

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 Rh Dangers During Pregnancy

 Danger is only when the mother is Rh– and the

father is Rh+, and the child inherits the Rh+
factor
 The mismatch of an Rh– mother carrying an Rh+ baby
can cause problems for the unborn child
 The first pregnancy usually proceeds without problems
 The immune system is sensitized after the first
pregnancy
 In a second pregnancy, the mother’s immune system
produces antibodies to attack the Rh+ blood (hemolytic
disease of the newborn)
Slide
 The Cardiovascular System

 A closed system of the heart and blood

vessels
 The heart pumps blood
 Blood vessels allow blood to circulate to all
parts of the body
 The function of the cardiovascular
system is to deliver oxygen and
nutrients and to remove carbon dioxide
and other waste products
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 The Heart
 Hollow cone-shaped muscular pump
 Pumps 7,000 L daily and 2.5 billion beats in a
lifetime
 Location
 Thorax between the lungs
 Pointed apex directed toward left hip
 About the size of your fist
 Less than 1 lb.

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The Heart

Figure 11.1

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 The Heart: Coverings

 Pericardium – a double serous

membrane
 Visceral pericardium
 Next to heart
 Parietal pericardium
 Outside layer
 Serous fluid fills the space between the
layers of pericardium
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 The Heart: Heart Wall
 Three layers
 Epicardium
 Outside layer – reduces friction
 This layer is the parietal pericardium
 Connective tissue layer
 Myocardium
 Middle layer
 Mostly cardiac muscle (pumps blood)
 Endocardium
 Inner layer (lines chambers of heart and blood
vessels)
 Endothelium

Slide 11.4
 External Heart Anatomy

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 11.2a Slide 11.5
 The Heart: Chambers
 Right and left side act as separate pumps (double pump; rt &
lf sides)
 Four chambers
 Atria
 Receiving chambers- (superior)
 Right atrium (receive from the body)
 Left atrium (receives from the lungs)
 Ventricles
 Discharging chambers (inferior)
 Right ventricle (send blood to lungs)
 Left ventricle (sends blood to the body)

 Interventricular septum – structure that separates

chambers
Slide 11.6
Blood Circulation

Figure 11.3
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 The Heart: Valves
 Allow blood to flow in only one direction
 Four valves
 Atrioventricular valves (AV)– between atria
and ventricles
 Bicuspid valve (left) – (aka mitral valve)
 Tricuspid valve (right)
 Semilunar valves between ventricle and
artery
 Pulmonary semilunar valve
 Aortic semilunar valve
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 The Heart: Valves
 Valves open as blood is pumped
through
 Held in place by chordae tendineae
(“heart strings”)
 Close to prevent backflow
 Murmur – abnormal or unusual heart
sounds

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 11.9
 Sounds of the Heart
• Lubb-dubb
• Lubb – AV valves closing; ventricular
contraction
• Dubb – semilunar valves closing; ventricles
relax
 Operation of Heart Valves

Figure 11.4
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The Heart: Associated Great Vessels

 Aorta - (sends blood to body)

 Leaves left ventricle
 Pulmonary arteries - (send blood to lungs)
 Leaves right ventricle
 Vena cava – (returns blood from body)
 Enters right atrium
 Pulmonary veins (four) – (return oxygenated blood
to the heart from lungs)
 Enter left atrium

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 Coronary Circulation
 Blood in the heart chambers does not nourish
the myocardium
 The heart has its own nourishing circulatory
system
 Coronary arteries –(supplies blood to the
heart)
 Cardiac veins – (drains blood from the heart)
 Blood empties into the right atrium via the
coronary sinus

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 External Heart Anatomy

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 11.2a Slide 11.5
 The Heart: Conduction System
 Intrinsic conduction system
(nodal system)
 Heart muscle cells contract, without nerve
impulses, in a regular, continuous way
 Cardiac muscle cells in different areas of the
heart have different rhythms
 Ex. Atrial cells @ 60X per min
Ventricular cells @ 20-40X per min

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 The Heart: Conduction System
 Special tissue sets the pace
 Sinoatrial (SA) node (right atrium)
 Pacemaker; starts each heart beat
 Atrioventricular (AV) node (jctn. of rt & lf
atria & ventricles); makes atria contract
 Atrioventricular bundle (Bundle of His);
makes the ventricles contract
 Bundle branches (right and left)
 Purkinje fibers
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Heart Contractions

Figure 11.5

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 What unifies this system?
• 1. nerves of the autonomic nervous
system
• 2. intrinsic conduction or nodal system
– This enforces approx 75X per min so the heart
can beat as one unit
 Problems with Heart Beats
• Damage to AV node = release of ventricles from
control = slower heart beat “heart block”
• Slower heart beat can lead to fibrillation
• Ischemia – lack of adequate blood supply to the
heart muscle; may lead to fibrillation
• Fibrillation = (lack of blood flow to the heart);
rapid, uncoordinated shuddering of the heart
muscle.
Problems with Heart Beats (cont)
• Fibrillation makes the heart useless as a
pump and is the major cause of death from
heart attack in adults.
• Tachycardia = rapid heart rate; more than
100 beats/min
• Bradycardia = heart rate is substantially
lower than normal; less than 60 beats/min
Electrocardiograms (EKG/ECG)

Figure 8.15B, C
 Blood Vessels: The Vascular
System

 Taking blood to the tissues and back

 Arteries
 Arterioles
 Capillaries
 Venules
 Veins

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The Vascular System

Figure 11.8b

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Blood vessels
• Turn to p27 of
Biology text
• Sketch a diagram to
show the structure of
an artery, vein and
capillaries.
• Copy and complete the
table on the next slide.
 Blood Vessels: Anatomy
 Three layers (tunics)
 Tunic intima – basement membrane
 Endothelium – make it slick for blood to flow
without friction
 Tunic media
 Smooth muscle - controls diameter of
vessels
 Controlled by sympathetic nervous system
 Tunic externa – fxn is to support and protect
vessels
 Mostly fibrous connective tissue
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 Differences Between Blood Vessel
Types
 Walls of arteries are the thickest b/c
they are adapted for carrying blood
under high pressure
 Skeletal muscle “milks” blood in veins
toward the heart
 Walls of capillaries are only one cell
layer thick to allow for exchanges
between blood and tissue
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 Movement of Blood Through
Vessels

 Most arterial blood is

pumped by the heart
 Veins use the milking
action of muscles to
help move blood

Figure 11.9

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 Vein characteristics
• Thinner walls; less smooth muscles; less
elastic muscle
• Have valves to prevent backflow
Capillary Beds

 Capillary beds
consist of two
types of vessels
 Vascular shunt –
directly connects an
arteriole to a venule

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 11.10 Slide
Capillary Beds

 True capillaries –
exchange vessels
 Oxygen and
nutrients cross to
cells
 Carbon dioxide
and metabolic
waste products
cross into blood

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 Diffusion at Capillary Beds

Figure 11.20

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 The Heart: Cardiac Cycle

 Atria contract simultaneously

 Atria relax, then ventricles contract
 Systole = contraction
 Diastole = relaxation

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 Filling of Heart Chambers –
the Cardiac Cycle

Figure 11.6

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 The Heart: Cardiac Output

 Cardiac output (CO)

 Amount of blood pumped by each side of
the heart in one minute
 CO = (heart rate [HR]) x (stroke volume
[SV])
 Stroke volume
 Volume of blood pumped by each ventricle
in one contraction
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 Cardiac output, cont.
• CO = HR x SV
• 5250 ml/min = 75 beats/min x 70 mls/beat
• Norm = 5000 ml/min
• Entire blood supply passes through body
once per minute.
• CO varies with demands of the body.
 Cardiac Output Regulation

Figure 11.7

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 The Heart: Regulation of Heart
Rate
 Stroke volume usually remains relatively
constant
 Changing heart rate is the most
common way to change cardiac output

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 Congestive Heart Failure (CHF)
• Decline in pumping efficiency of heart
• Inadequate circulation
• Progressive, also coronary atherosclerosis, high
blood pressure and history of multiple Myocardial
Infarctions
• Left side fails = pulmonary congestion and
suffocation
• Right side fails = peripheral congestion and edema
Blood Circulation

Figure 11.3
 Vital Signs
• Arterial pulse
• Blood pressure
• Respiratory Rate
• Body Temperature
• All indicate the efficiency of the system
Pulse
 Pulse – pressure
wave of blood;
expansion & recoil
of artery
 Monitored at
“pressure points”
where pulse is
easily palpated
 Points can also be
used to stop
hemorrhaging if
compressed
Blood Pressure
 Measurements by health professionals
are made on the pressure in large
arteries
 Systolic – pressure at the peak of
ventricular contraction
 Diastolic – pressure when ventricles relax
 Pressure in blood vessels decreases as
the distance away from the heart
increases
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 Measuring Arterial Blood Pressure

Figure 11.18

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Blood Pressure: Effects of Factors
 Temperature
 Heat has a vasodilation effect (smooth
muscles relax and increase diameter of
vessel)
 Cold has a vasoconstriction effect (smooth
muscles contract and reduce the diameter of
vessels)
 Chemicals
 Various substances can cause increases or
decreases
 Diet
 Blood Pressure: Effects of Factors

• Constriction of blood vessels

• Weight
• Exercise
• Emotional state
• Body temperature
• Age
• Body position
 Variations in Blood Pressure
 Human normal range is variable
 Normal
 140–110 mm Hg systolic
 80–75 mm Hg diastolic
 Hypotension
 Low systolic (below 110 mm HG)
 Often associated with illness or poor nutrition
 Often occurs in elderly
 Hypertension
 High systolic (above 140 mm HG)
 “silent killer” b/c it slowly drains the heart and
arteries (vessels weaken)