Cell Division

Mitosis & Meiosis

Cell Division
What is it?
Why do
Cells do it?
Why is it
important to
me?
 Cell Division
Takes place in
Regular Body Cells
Keeps Cells Living
and Growing
Why Do Cells Divide?

The larger a cell

becomes, the more
demands the cell
places on it's DNA.

It also has more

trouble moving
enough food and
wastes across its
cell membrane.
Food goes in

The bigger
the cell gets
the harder it
becomes to
move food
and waste
across the
membrane

Waste goes out

 Why Is Cell Division Important?

1. All Living Things are made of Cells

2. The Cell is the basic unit of Structure and
Function in Living Things.
3. All Cells come from pre existing Cells
You are a living
organism, made of
cells.

In order to keep
living, your cells
must stay alive.

In order for cells to

keep living, they
must divide and
multiply
Cell Cycle
 Cell cycle
The Basic Phases
of a Cell’s Life:
•Interphase
•Karyokinesis
•Cytokinesis
 Interphase
The longest stage
of a Cell’s life
The time spent
between divisions
Produces all
materials required
for growth
Preparation for
division
Part of
Interphase is
also known as
the G1 Phase
of the Cell
Cycle

(Growth
Phase)
The Second
part of
Interphase is
known as the
S Phase of the
Cell Cycle
(Synthesis
Phase – when
DNA
duplicates)
The third part of
the Cell Cycle, G2,
is just a checkpoint
to make sure the
DNA is correct.
Next step –

Karyokinesis
 Karyokinesis

• Mitosis
• Meiosis
 Mitosis:
Cell Division

Mitosis has 4
phases during
which the cell
divides into 2
cells
 Prophase
The Cell begins
the division
process

1. The nucleolus
disappears,
2. The nuclear
membrane
breaks apart
3. The chromosomes
become visible

4. The spindle
apparatus forms
and attaches to
the centromeres
of the
chromosomes
 Metaphase
The Second Phase
of Mitosis

1. The Nuclear
Membrane is
completely gone
2. The duplicated
chromosomes line
up along the cell's
equator.
 Anaphase

The third phase of

Mitosis

Diploid sets of daughter

chromosomes separate

They are pushed and

pulled toward opposite
poles of the cell by the
spindle fibers
Spindle Fibers
 Telophase

The nuclear
membrane and
nucleoli (nucleus)
reform.

Cytokinesis is
nearly complete,
The Cell Plate
begins to form

The Cell
prepares for
finial division
 Cytokinesis – The final stage of Mitosis
The cytoplasm, organelles, and nuclear
material are evenly split and two new
cells are formed.

Cell Plate
The two new cells – each exactly like the
other – are called Daughter Cells
Quick Review:
The following slides are drawings of the
stages of Mitosis. On your notes, please
draw each phase and label it.
Interphase – The Cell spends the majority of
its life here, growing and functioning. During
the S Phase of the Cell Cycle, the DNA
replicates, in anticipation of Mitosis
 In Early Prophase of Mitosis the Chromosomes
get small, centrioles move to the poles of the
nucleus, and spindle fibers develop
Chromosomes
consisting of 2
Pair of Sister
Centrioles Chromatids

Spindle Fibers
Late Prophase happens when the
Nuclear Envelope disintegrates and
spindle fibers begin to move
Chromosomes toward the center of cell.

Spindle Fibers

Chromosomes
During Metaphase the Chromosomes line
up across center of the cell, also called the
equator, or Metaphase plate.

Spindle Fibers

Equator, or Metaphase Plate

Chromosomes
In Anaphase the Chromatids that make up each
Chromosome move apart and travel to opposite
ends of cellular spindle

Daughter Chromosomes

Chromatid

Chromosome
In Telophase an envelope surrounds each set of
Chromatids to form new Nucleus and the
Cytoplasm starts to divide

Cleavage Furrow
Cytokinesis takes place when the Cytoplasm
divides and two cells with identical genetic
material are formed

Daughter Cells
Quick Review – Place Cells in Mitosis Order

A B C

D E
Interphase Quick Review:
Identify What
happens in each
Prophase
phase of Mitosis:

Metaphase

Anaphase

Telophase
Meiosis

Why We Are Who We Are

Organisms that reproduce Sexually are
made up of two different types of cells.
1. Somatic Cells are “body” cells and contain the
normal number of chromosomes ….called the
“Diploid” number (the symbol is 2n). Examples
would be … skin cells, brain cells, etc.

2. Gametes are the “sex” cells and contain only ½

the normal number of chromosomes…. called the
“Haploid” number (the symbol is n)….. Sperm
cells and ova are gametes.
n = number of chromosomes in the set… so….2n means 2
chromosomes in the set…. Polyploid cells have more than two
chromosomes per set… example: 3n (3 chromosomes per set)
 Gametes
• The Male Gamete is the Sperm and is
produced in the male gonad the Testes.

• The Female Gamete is the Ovum (ova = pl.)

and is produced in the female gonad the
Ovaries.
 During Ovulation the ovum is
released from the ovary and
transported to an area where
fertilization, the joining of the
sperm and ovum, can occur……
fertilization, in Humans, occurs in
the Fallopian tube. Fertilization
results in the formation of the
Zygote. (fertilized egg)
fertilization
Sperm + Ovum (egg) Zygote
 Fertilization

• The fusion of a sperm and egg to form a zygote.

zygote
• A zygote is a fertilized egg

sperm
n=23 n=23
egg
2n=46
zygote
 Homologous Chromosomes
• Pair of chromosomes (maternal and paternal)
paternal that are
similar in shape and size.
• Homologous pairs (tetrads) carry genes controlling the
same inherited traits.
• Each locus (position of a gene) is in the same position on
homologues.
• Humans have 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes.

22 pairs of autosomes
1 pair of sex chromosomes
 Homologous Chromosomes
(because a homologous pair consists of 4 chromatids it is called a “Tetrad”)

eye color eye color

locus locus

hair color hair color

locus locus

Paternal Maternal
Humans have 23 Sets of Homologous Chromosomes
Each Homologous set is made up of 2 Homologues.
Homologue

Homologue
 Autosomes
(The Autosomes code for most of the offspring’s traits)

In Humans the
“Autosomes”
are sets 1 - 22
 Sex Chromosomes
The Sex Chromosomes code for the sex of the offspring.
** If the offspring has two “X” chromosomes it will be a female.
** If the offspring has one “X” chromosome and one “Y”
chromosome it will be a male.

In Humans the “Sex

Chromosomes” are
the 23rd set

XX chromosome - female XY chromosome - male

Sex Chromosomes

“Sex Chromosomes”
…….the 23rd set

This person has 2

“X” chromosomes…
and is a female.

23
 Chromosomes
• If an organism has the Diploid number (2n) it has
two matching homologues per set. One of the
homologues comes from the mother (and has the
mother’s DNA).… the other homologue comes
from the father (and has the father’s DNA).
• Most organisms are diploid. Humans have 23 sets
of chromosomes… therefore humans have 46
total chromosomes….. The diploid number for
humans is 46 (46 chromosomes per cell).
 Meiosis
is the process by which ”gametes” (sex cells) , with half
the number of chromosomes, are produced.

During Meiosis diploid cells are reduced to haploid cells

Diploid (2n)  Haploid (n)

If Meiosis did not occur the chromosome

number in each new generation would
double…. The offspring would die.
 Meiosis
Takes place in the Gametes of an organism
People have a Chromosome count of 46
When an egg joins a sperm the count must stay at
46 to remain human
So, the egg can only have 23 chromosomes, and the
sperm can only have 23 chromosomes
But, the integrity of the organism must be
maintained.
How does this happen?
 During Meiosis gamete (sex) cells undergo a
“double division”, maintaining the DNA, but
reducing the chromosomal count to 23

+ =

Sperm (23) + Egg (23) = Fertilized Cell (46)

Chromosome Chromosomes at
after S Phase beginning of Mitosis
After After
Mitosis Meiosis
 Original Gamete Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Cytokinesis

2 Daughter Cells Metaphase 2 Anaphase 2 Telophase 2 Cytokinesis – 4 Gametes

At the end of Meiosis
the individual Gamete
cell has divided from
one cell to four.
Males produce 4
viable sperm.
Females produce 1
viable egg and 3 non
functioning polar
bodies.
 Meiosis
ensures that
all living
organisms
will maintain
both Genetic
Diversity and
Genetic
Integrity
 Meiosis
Meiosis is Two cell divisions
(called meiosis I and meiosis II)
II

with only one duplication of chromosomes.

 Gametogenesis
Meiosis in males is called
spermatogenesis and produces sperm.

Meiosis in females is called oogenesis

and produces ova.
 Spermatogenesis
Secondary Spermatocyte n=23
human
sex cell
sperm
Primary Spermatocyte n=23
n=23

2n=46 Secondary Spermatocyte

haploid (n)
n=23
diploid (2n) n=23

4 sperm cells are

produced from each n=23
primary spermatocyte.
meiosis I meiosis II
Oogenesis

*** The polar bodies die… only one ovum

(egg) is produced from each primary oocyte.
OOGENESIS

SPERMATOGENESIS
 Interphase I
• Similar to mitosis interphase.

• Chromosomes replicate (S phase).

• Each duplicated chromosome consist of two

identical sister chromatids attached at their
centromeres.
centromeres

• Centriole pairs also replicate.

 Interphase I
• Nucleus and nucleolus visible.

chromatin nuclear
membrane

cell membrane

nucleolus
 Meiosis I (four phases)
• Cell division that reduces the chromosome
number by one-half.

• four phases:
phases
a. prophase I
b. metaphase I
c. anaphase I
d. telophase I
 Prophase I

• Longest and most complex phase.

• 90% of the meiotic process is spent in Prophase I
• Chromosomes condense.
• Synapsis occurs: homologous chromosomes come
together to form a tetrad.
tetrad
• Tetrad is two chromosomes or four chromatids
(sister and nonsister chromatids).
 Prophase I - Synapsis
Homologous chromosomes

sister chromatids sister chromatids

Tetrad
 During Prophase I
“Crossing Over” occurs.
Crossing Over is one of the Two major occurrences of Meiosis
(The other is Non-disjunction)

• During Crossing over segments of

nonsister chromatids break and reattach
to the other chromatid.
chromatid The Chiasmata
(chiasma) are the sites of crossing over.
over
 Crossing Over
creates variation (diversity) in the offspring’s traits.
nonsister chromatids Tetrad

chiasmata: site variation

of crossing over
 Question:

• A cell containing 20 chromosomes (diploid)

at the beginning of meiosis would, at its
completion, produce cells containing how
many chromosomes?
chromosomes
 Answer:
• 10 chromosomes (haploid)
 Question:

• A cell containing 40 chromatids at the

beginning of meiosis would, at its completion,
produce cells containing how many
chromosomes?
chromosomes
 Answer:
• 10 chromosomes
 Prophase I

spindle fiber centrioles

aster
fibers
 Metaphase I
• Shortest phase
• Tetrads align on the metaphase plate.
plate
• INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT OCCURS:
1. Orientation of homologous pair to poles is random.
2. Variation
3. Formula: 2n
Example: 2n = 4
then n = 2
thus 22 = 4 combinations
 Metaphase I

OR

metaphase plate metaphase plate

 Anaphase I
• Homologous chromosomes separate and
move towards the poles.

• Sister chromatids remain attached at their

centromeres.
centromeres
Anaphase I
 Telophase I

• Each pole now has haploid set of

chromosomes.
chromosomes

• Cytokinesis occurs and two haploid daughter

cells are formed.
Telophase I
 Meiosis II
• No interphase II
(or very short - no more DNA replication)
replication

• Remember: Meiosis II is similar to mitosis

 Prophase II
• same as prophase in mitosis
 Metaphase II
• same as metaphase in mitosis

metaphase plate metaphase plate

 Anaphase II
• same as anaphase in mitosis
• sister chromatids separate
 Telophase II

• Same as telophase in mitosis.

mitosis
• Nuclei form.
• Cytokinesis occurs.

• Remember: four haploid daughter cells

produced.

gametes = sperm or egg

Telophase II
 Non-disjunction
Non-disjunction is one of the Two major occurrences of Meiosis
(The other is Crossing Over)

• Non-disjunction is the failure of homologous

chromosomes, or sister chromatids, to
separate during meiosis.
• Non-disjunction results with the production
of zygotes with abnormal chromosome
numbers…… remember…. An abnormal
chromosome number (abnormal amount of
DNA) is damaging to the offspring.
Non-disjunctions usually occur
in one of two fashions.
• The first is called Monosomy, the second
is called Trisomy. If an organism has
Trisomy 18 it has three chromosomes in
the 18th set, Trisomy 21…. Three
chromosomes in the 21st set. If an
organism has Monosomy 23 it has only
one chromosome in the 23rd set.
 Common Non-disjunction Disorders

• Down’s Syndrome – Trisomy 21

• Turner’s Syndrome – Monosomy 23 (X)
• Kleinfelter’s Syndrome – Trisomy 23 (XXY)
• Edward’s Syndrome – Trisomy 18
 Karyotype
(picture of an individual’s chromosomes)

One of the ways to

analyze the
amniocentesis is
to make a
Karyotype

What genetic
disorder does this
karyotype show?
Trisomy 21….Down’s
Syndrome
JAZKALLAH & THANK YOU