Course Title: Aircraft Aerodynamics

Chapter 1: Introduction

1
 What is Aerodynamics?
Aerodynamics is the study of gases, especially
atmospheric interactions with moving objects.
The subject ‘Aerodynamics’ relates to the
study of relative flow of air past an aircraft or
any other object of interest like train,
automobile, building etc.
Engineers apply the principles of
aerodynamics to the designs of many different
things, including buildings, bridges and even
soccer balls; however, of our primary concern
is the aerodynamics of aircraft. 2
 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

NEWTON’S FIRST LAW - THE LAW OF

EQUILIBRIUM
“A body at rest tends to remain at rest and a body in motion
tends to remain in motion in a straight line at a constant
velocity unless acted upon by some unbalanced force.”
 The tendency of a body to remain in its condition of rest or
motion is called inertia.
 Equilibrium is the absence of acceleration, either linear or
angular.
 Equilibrium flight exists when the sum of all forces and
the sum of all moments around the center of gravity are
equal to zero. 3
NEWTON’S SECOND LAW - THE LAW OF
ACCELERATION
 “An unbalanced force (F) acting on a body produces an
acceleration (a) in the direction of the force that is directly
proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the
mass (m) of the body.”
 In equation form:

Fig. 1

 When an airplane’s thrust is greater than its drag (in level flight), the
excess thrust will accelerate the airplane until drag increases to equal
4
thrust.
 NEWTON’S THIRD LAW - THE LAW OF
INTERACTION
 “For every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction.”
 This law is demonstrated by the thrust produced in a
jet engine. The hot gases exhausted rearward
produce a thrust force acting forward (Fig.2)

5
 PROPERTIES OF THE ATMOSPHERE
 The atmosphere is composed of approximately 78% nitrogen,
21% oxygen, and 1% other gases, including argon and carbon
dioxide. Air is considered to be a uniform mixture of these gases,
so we will examine its characteristics as a whole rather than as
separate gases.
 Static pressure (PS) is the pressure particles of air exert on
adjacent bodies. Ambient static pressure is equal to the weight of
a column of air over a given area. The force of static pressure
always acts perpendicular to any surface that the air particles
collide with, regardless of whether the air is moving with respect
to that surface.
 As altitude increases, there is less air in the column above, so it
weighs less. Thus atmospheric static pressure decreases with an
increase in altitude. At low altitudes, it decreases at a rate6 of
 Read about:
 Air density (ρ)
 Temperature (T)
 Humudity
 Viscosity (μ)

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 THE STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
 The aerodynamicist is concerned about one fluid, namely
air.
 The atmospheric layer in which most flying is done is an
ever-changing environment.
 Temperature and pressure vary with altitude, season,
location, time, and even sunspot activity.
 It is impractical to take all of these into consideration when
discussing airplane performance.
 In order to disregard these atmospheric changes, an
engineering baseline has been developed called the
standard atmosphere.
 It is a set of reference conditions giving representative
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The 1962 U.S. Standard Atmosphere is the more general model and it
is useful to list the standard sea level conditions:

Table 1 Sea Level Standard Atmospheric Conditions

9
 The first standard atmospheric models were
developed in the 1920's in both Europe and the
United States.
 For all practical purposes, the U.S. Standard
Atmosphere (1962) is in agreement with the ICAO
Standard Atmosphere over their common altitude
range but extends to 700 km.
 Uncertainty in values increased with altitude as
available data decreased.

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11
 Troposphere
 The troposphere begins at the Earth's surface and extends up
to 4-12 miles (6-20 km) high. This is where we live. As the
gases in this layer decrease with height, the air become
thinner. Therefore, the temperature in the troposphere also
decreases with height. As you climb higher, the temperature
drops from about 62°F (17°C) to -60°F (-51°C). Almost all
weather occurs in this region.
 The height of the troposphere varies from the equator to the
poles. At the equator it is around 11-12 miles (18-20 km)
high, at 50°N and 50°S, 5½ miles and at the poles just under
four miles high. The transition boundary between the
troposphere and the layer above is called the tropopause.
Both the tropopause and the troposphere are known as 12the
 Stratosphere
 The Stratosphere extends from the tropopause up to 31 miles
above the Earth's surface. This layer holds 19 percent of the
atmosphere's gases and but very little water vapor.
 Temperature increases with height as radiation is increasingly
absorbed by oxygen molecules which leads to the formation of
Ozone.
 The temperature rises from an average -76°F (-60°C) at
tropopause to a maximum of about 5°F (-15°C) at the
stratopause due to this absorption of ultraviolet radiation. The
increasing temperature also makes it a calm layer with
movements of the gases slow.
 The regions of the stratosphere and the mesosphere, along with
the stratopause and mesopause, are called the middle atmosphere
by scientists. The transition boundary which separates 13the
 Mesosphere
 The mesosphere extends from the stratopause to about
53 miles (85 km) above the earth. The gases, including
the oxygen molecules, continue to become thinner and
thinner with height.
 As such, the effect of the warming by ultraviolet
radiation also becomes less and less leading to a
decrease in temperature with height. On average,
temperature decreases from about 5°F (-15°C) to as low
as -184°F (-120°C) at the mesopause.
 However, the gases in the mesosphere are thick enough
to slow down meteorites hurtling into the atmosphere,
where they burn up, leaving fiery trails in the night sky.
14
 Thermosphere
 The Thermosphere extends from the mesopause to 430
miles (690 km) above the earth. This layer is known as the
upper atmosphere.
 The gases of the thermosphere are increasingly thinner than
in the mesosphere. As such, only the higher energy
ultraviolet and x-ray radiation from the sun is absorbed. But
because of this absorption, the temperature increases with
height and can reach as high as 3,600°F (2000°C) near the
top of this layer.
 However, despite the high temperature, this layer of the
atmosphere would still feel very cold to our skin because of
the extremely thin air. The total amount of energy from the
very few molecules in this layer is not sufficient enough to
heat our skin. 15
 Exosphere
The Exosphere is the outermost layer of the
atmosphere and extends from the
thermopause to 6200 miles (10,000 km)
above the earth.
In this layer, atoms and molecules escape
into space and satellites orbit the earth.
The transition boundary which separates the
exosphere from the thermosphere below it is
called the thermopause.
16
Standardized Temperature Profile

17
 THE GENERAL GAS LAW
 The General Gas Law sets the relationship between three
properties of air: pressure (P), density (ρ), and temperature
(T).
 It is expressed as an equation where R is a constant for any
given gas (such as dry air):
P = ρRT
 One method to increase pressure is to keep density constant
and increase temperature (as in a pressure cooker).
 If pressure remains constant, there is an inverse relationship
between density and temperature. An increase in temperature
must result in a decrease in density, and vice versa.
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 ALTITUDE MEASUREMENT
 Altitude: is defined as the geometric height above a given
plane of reference.
 True altitude is the actual height above mean sea level.
 Pressure altitude (PA) is the height above the standard
datum plane.
 The standard datum plane is the actual elevation at which
the barometric pressure is 29.92 inHg. Since the standard
datum plane is at sea level in the standard atmosphere,
true altitude will be equal to pressure altitude.

19
 Density altitude (DA): is the altitude in the
standard atmosphere where the air density is equal
to local air density. It is found by correcting
pressure altitude for temperature and humidity
deviations from the standard atmosphere.
 In the standard atmosphere, density altitude is
equal to pressure altitude. But as temperature or
humidity increase, the air becomes less dense, with
the effect that the actual air density at one altitude
is equal to that of a higher altitude on a standard
day.
 A high DA indicates a low air density.
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 CHAPTER 2
Basic Aerodynamic Principles
PROPERTIES OF AIRFLOW
 The atmosphere is a uniform mixture of gases with the properties of a fluid and
subject to the laws of fluid motion. Fluids can flow and may be of a liquid or
gaseous state. They yield easily to changes in static pressure, density,
temperature and velocity.
 Steady airflow exists if at every point in the airflow these four properties remain
constant over time. The speed and/or direction of the individual air particles may
vary from one point to another in the flow, but the velocity of every particle that
passes any given point is always the same.
 In steady airflow, a particle of air follows the same path as the preceding particle.

Streamline in Steady Airflow 21

 A streamline is the path that air particles follow in steady
airflow. In steady airflow, particles do not cross streamlines.
 A collection of many adjacent streamlines forms a stream
tube, which contains a flow just as effectively as a tube with
solid walls. In steady airflow, a streamtube is a closed
system, in which mass and total energy must remain
constant.
 If mass is added to the streamtube, an equal amount of mass
will be removed. An analogy is a garden hose in which each
unit of water that flows in displaces another that flows out.

Streamtube 22
 THE CONTINUITY EQUATION

 Let us intersect the streamtube with two planes

perpendicular to the airflow at points a-b and c-d,
with cross-sectional areas of A1 and A2, respectively
(Figure 4).

 The amount of mass passing any point in the

streamtube may be found by multiplying area by
velocity to give volume/unit time and then
multiplying by density to give mass/unit time.
 This is called mass flow and is expressed as: 23
 The amount of mass flowing through A1 must equal that
flowing through A2, since no mass can flow through the
walls of the streamtube.
 Thus, an equation expressing the continuity of flow through
a streamtube is:
 Our discussion is limited to subsonic airflow, so we can ignore
changes in density due to compressibility. If we assume that both ends
of the streamtube are at the same altitude, then ρ1 is equal to ρ2 and
we can cancel them from our equation. The simplified continuity
equation that we will use is:

If the cross sectional area decreases on one side of the

equation, the velocity must increase on the same side so both
sides remain equal. Thus velocity and area in a streamtube
are inversely related. 24
 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
(The conservation of energy)

 Aerodynamics is concerned with the forces acting on a body due to airflow.

These forces are the result of pressure and friction. The relationship between
pressure and velocity is fundamental to understanding how we create the
aerodynamic force on a wing. Bernoulli’s equation gives the relationship
between the pressure and velocity of steady airflow.
 Recall that in a closed system, total energy is the sum of potential energy and
kinetic energy, and must remain constant.
 Compressed air has potential energy because it can do work by exerting a force
on a surface.
 Therefore, static pressure (PS) is a measure of potential energy per unit volume.
 Moving air has kinetic energy since it can do work by exerting a force on a
surface due to its momentum. Dividing KE by volume and substituting ρ for
mass/volume gives us dynamic pressure. Dynamic pressure (q) is the pressure
of a fluid resulting from its motion:

25
 Compressed air has potential energy because it can
do work by exerting a force on a surface. Therefore,
static pressure (PS) is a measure of potential energy
per unit volume.
 Total pressure (PT) is the sum of static and dynamic
pressure.
 As with total energy, total pressure also remains
constant within a closed system (Table1). As area in
a streamtube decreases, velocity increases, so q
must increase (recall that q depends on V2).

26
Table 1 Conservation of Energy in a Fluid

27
 From Bernoulli’s equation we know that since q
increases, PS must decrease (Figure 5).
 In our streamtube, if dynamic pressure increases,
static pressure decreases, and vice versa.

Figure 5 Airfoil in a Streamtube

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29
 AIRSPEED MEASUREMENT
Airspeed is the speed of an aircraft relative to the
air. Among the common conventions for qualifying
airspeed are:
 indicated airspeed ("IAS"),
 calibrated airspeed ("CAS"),
 true airspeed ("TAS"),
 equivalent airspeed ("EAS") and
 density airspeed.
 The measurement and indication of airspeed is ordinarily
accomplished on board an aircraft by an
airspeed indicator ("ASI") connected to a pitot-static
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 The pitot-static system comprises one or more pitot
probes (or tubes) facing the on-coming air flow to
measure pitot pressure (also called stagnation, total
or ram pressure) and one or more static ports to
measure the static pressure in the air flow. These
two pressures are compared by the ASI to give an
IAS reading.

Fig. Pitot probes 31

 AIRSPEED MEASUREMENT
 There are several reasons to measure airspeed. It is
necessary to know whether we have sufficient
dynamic pressure to create lift, but not enough to
cause damage, and velocity is necessary for
navigation. If dynamic pressure can be measured,
velocity can be calculated.
 Dynamic pressure cannot be measured directly, but
can be derived using Bernoulli’s equation as the
difference between the total pressure and the static
pressure acting on the airplane:
32
 The system that accomplishes this is the pitot static
system.
 It consists of a pitot tube that senses total pressure
(PT), a static port that senses ambient static pressure
(PS), and a mechanism to compute and display
dynamic pressure.
 Let’s consider “q” it as a “black box”. (Fig.6)

33
Figure: Pitot Static System
Pitot-static system and instruments

34
 At the entrance to the pitot tube, the airstream has
both an ambient static pressure (PS) and a dynamic
pressure (q). Inside the pitot tube, the velocity of the
air mass is reduced to zero.
 As velocity reaches zero, dynamic pressure is
converted entirely to static pressure. This converted
static pressure is added to the ambient static
pressure (PS) to form a total static pressure equal to
the free airstream total pressure (PT).
 This total static pressure is connected to one side of
a diaphragm inside the black box.
35
 The static pressure port is a hole or series of small holes on
the surface of the airplane’s fuselage that are flush with the
surface. Only ambient static pressure (PS) affects the static
port; no dynamic pressure is sensed.
 The static port is connected to the other side of the
diaphragm in the black box.
 The ambient static pressure (PS) is subtracted from the
total pressure (PT), giving dynamic pressure (q), which is
displayed on a pressure gauge inside the cockpit. This
gauge is calibrated in knots of indicated airspeed (KIAS).
 Indicated airspeed (IAS) is the instrument indication of
the dynamic pressure the airplane is exposed to during
flight. To determine true airspeed, certain corrections must
be made to IAS. 36
 Instrument error is caused by the static pressure port
accumulating erroneous static pressure; slipstream flow causes
disturbances at the static pressure port, preventing actual
atmospheric pressure measurement.
 When indicated airspeed is corrected for instrument error, it is
called Calibrated airspeed (CAS). Often, installation and
position error are combined with instrument error.
 Even the combination of all three errors is usually only a few
knots, and is often ignored.
 Compressibility error is caused by the ram effect of air in the
pitot tube resulting in higher than normal airspeed indications at
airspeeds approaching the speed of sound.
 Equivalent airspeed (EAS) is the true airspeed at sea level on a
standard day that produces the same dynamic pressure as the
actual flight condition. It is found by correcting calibrated
37
airspeed for compressibility error.
 True airspeed (TAS) is the actual velocity at which
an airplane moves though an air mass. It is found by
correcting EAS for density. TAS is EAS corrected
for the difference between the local air density (ρ)
and the density of the air at sea level on a standard
day (ρ0):

As instrument error is typically small, and compressibility

error is minor at subsonic velocities, we will ignore them
and develop TAS directly from IAS:
38
 The pitot static system is calibrated for standard sea level density, so
TAS will equal IAS only under standard day, sea level conditions.
 Since air density decreases with an increase in temperature or
altitude, if IAS remains constant while climbing from sea level to
some higher altitude, TAS must increase.
 A rule of thumb is that TAS will be approximately three knots faster
than IAS for every thousand feet of altitude.
 Ground speed is the airplane’s actual speed over the ground. Since
TAS is the actual speed of the airplane through the air mass, if we
correct TAS for the movement of the air mass (wind), we will have
ground speed.
 It is calculated using the following formulas:

 “ICE-TG” is a helpful mnemonic device for the order of the

airspeeds. 39
 MACH NUMBER
 As an airplane flies, velocity and pressure changes
create sound waves in the airflow around the airplane.
Since these sound waves travel at the speed of sound,
an airplane flying at subsonic airspeeds will travel
slower than the sound waves and allow them to
dissipate. Less than the speed of sound
Slow-flying planes create air
pressure disturbances that
move at the speed of sound,
traveling well in front of the
plane. The airflow adjusts and
disturbances disperse.

40
However, as the airplane nears the speed of sound, these
pressure waves “pile up” forming a wall of pressure called
a shock wave, which also travels at the speed of sound. As
long as the airflow velocity on an airplane remains below
the local speed of sound (LSOS), it will not suffer the
effects of compressibility.
At the speed of sound
Planes flying at the speed of
sound experience a dramatic
increase in their drag because
disturbances accumulate
instead of disperse. The
airplane has almost caught up
with the pressure waves it is
creating with no forward
thrust. 41
Therefore, it is appropriate to compare the two
velocities. Mach Number (M) is the ratio of the
airplane’s true airspeed to the local speed of sound:

Greater than the speed of sound

Planes flying faster than the
speed of sound cause powerful
shock waves because airflow
has no time to adjust for them.
The sonic boom is the sound
associated with the shock
wave. 42
 MACH NUMBER
 In Aerodynamics, Mach number (M) is a dimensionless
quantity representing the ratio of speed of an object
moving through air and the local speed of sound.
Where:
M is the Mach number,
is the velocity of the source relativeto the
medium, and
v is the speed
sound
of sound in
themedium.
Mach number depends on the condition of the surrounding
medium, in particular the temperature and pressure. The
Mach number can be used to determine if a flow can be
treated as an incompressible flow. 43
 Mach is the term used to specify how many times the speed
of sound an aircraft is traveling
 The Mach number M allows us to define flight regimes in
which compressibility effects vary.
Subsonic: Less than Mach 1
Transonic: Mach .9 to Mach 1.5
Supersonic: All speeds above Mach 1
Hypersonic: All speeds greater than Mach 5

44
 Aeronautical definitions
Wing geometry
 The planform of a wing is the shape of the wing seen on a
plan view of the aircraft. Figure illustrates this and includes
the names of symbols of the various parameters of the plan
form geometry.

45
46
Wing span
The wing span is the dimension b, the distance between the
extreme wingtips. The distance, s, from each tip to the centre-
line, is the wing semi-span.
Chords
The two lengths CT and co are the tip and root chords
respectively; with the alternative convention, the root chord is
the distance between the intersections with the fuselage centre-
line of the leading and trailing edges produced.
Wing area
The plan-area of the wing including the continuation within the
fuselage is the gross wing area, SG. The unqualified term wing
area S is usually intended to mean this gross wing area. The
plan-area of the exposed wing, i.e. excluding the continuation
47
48
Aspect ratio
 The aspect ratio is a measure of the narrowness of
the wing platform. It is denoted by A, or
sometimes by (AR), and is given by

If both top and bottom of this expression are multiplied by

the wing span, by b it becomes:

a form which is often more convenient.

49
50
Camber: is the curvature of a wing's cross-section. It is
measured as the difference between the maximum and
minimum thicknesses of the wing. Camber can be positive,
negative, or zero. Positive camber wings are more efficient
at generating lift, but they are also more susceptible to
stalling. Negative camber wings are less efficient at
generating lift, but they are less likely to stall.
Leading edge: is the front edge of a wing. The leading edge
is often curved to reduce drag and improve lift.
Trailing edge: is the rear edge of a wing. The trailing edge is
often straight or slightly curved.
Chord line: is an imaginary line that runs along the center
of a wing's cross-section. The chord line is used to measure
the wing's thickness and camber. 51
Taper ratio is the ratio of the wing's tip chord to its
root chord. The tip chord is the distance between the
leading edge and the trailing edge of the wing tip. The
root chord is the distance between the leading edge
and the trailing edge of the wing root. Taper ratio is an
important factor in determining a wing's aerodynamic
performance. Wings with a higher taper ratio are more
efficient at generating lift, but they are also more
susceptible to stalling.
The ratio CT/C0 is the taper ratio λ. Sometimes the
reciprocal of this, namely c Co / CT is, taken as the
taper ratio. For most wings CT/CO < 1.
52
53
Angle of attack is the angle between the wing's chord line
and the oncoming airflow. The angle of attack is an
important factor in determining a wing's aerodynamic
performance.
Reynolds number is a dimensionless number that is used
to describe the flow of fluids around objects. Reynolds
number is calculated as the product of the fluid density,
the fluid velocity, and the characteristic length of the
object divided by the fluid viscosity.
Wing twist is the difference in angle of incidence
between the leading and trailing edges of a wing. It is
used to improve the aerodynamic performance of the
wing by reducing drag and increasing lift.
54
55
Dihedral is a structural feature of
an aircraft that helps to improve
its stability. The dihedral angle is
the angle between the two wings
of an aircraft. It is measured in
degrees, and is typically positive,
meaning that the wings are
angled up from the horizontal.
Dihedral helps to improve an
aircraft's stability by providing a
restoring moment in pitch. This
means that if the aircraft rolls to
one side, the dihedral angle will
cause the aircraft to roll back to
the other side. This helps to
prevent the aircraft from rolling
over and stalling.

56
57
58
Wing sweep is the angle between the wing's chord
line and the fuselage. It is measured in degrees and
can be positive or negative. Positive wing sweep is
when the wing's chord line is angled back from the
fuselage, while negative wing sweep is when the
wing's chord line is angled forward from the fuselage.
Wing sweep is used to improve the aerodynamic
performance of an aircraft. It can reduce drag and
improve lift, which can increase the aircraft's range
and speed. Wing sweep can also improve the
aircraft's handling characteristics, making it more
maneuverable.

59
60
61
62
Winglets are small, vertical extensions that are attached
to the tips of an aircraft's wings. They are designed to
improve the aerodynamic performance of the wings by
reducing drag and increasing lift.
Winglets work by reducing the vortex that forms at the
wingtip. This vortex is caused by the difference in
pressure between the upper and lower surfaces of the
wing. The upper surface of the wing is under higher
pressure than the lower surface, which causes air to
flow over the wingtip in a turbulent fashion. This
turbulence creates drag and reduces lift.
Winglets help to reduce the vortex by creating a barrier
that prevents the air from flowing over the wingtip.
63
64
65
The angle of incidence is
the angle between the
leading edge of a wing and
the oncoming airflow. It is
a critical parameter in
determining the lift and
drag characteristics of an
aircraft, as it affects the
wing's ability to produce
lift and the amount of
drag it generates.

66
67
The center of pressure is The aerodynamic center is
the point on a wing where the point on a wing where
the total aerodynamic the lift and drag forces are
force, including lift and equal and opposite. It is
drag, is concentrated. It is located along the mean
located along the mean aerodynamic chord,
aerodynamic chord and is typically between the
typically close to the leading and trailing edges
wing's leading edge. The of the wing. The
position of the center of aerodynamic center is
pressure affects the important in determining
stability and control of an the stability and control of
aircraft. an aircraft during flight.
68
69
Vorticity is the rotational motion of air around a
wing or other aerodynamic surface. It is
generated by the wing's angle of attack and the
flow of air over its surface, and is a key factor in
the production of lift and drag.

70
71
 AERODYNAMIC FORCES AND MOMENTS
 The aerodynamic forces and moments on the body are
due to only two basic sources:
1. Pressure distribution over the body surface
2. Shear stress distribution over the body surface
 No matter how complex the body shape may be, the
aerodynamic forces and moments on the body are due
entirely to the above two basic sources. The only
mechanisms nature has for communicating a force to a
body moving through a fluid are pressure and shear
stress distributions on the body surface. Both pressure p
and shear stress τ have dimensions of force per unit area
(pounds per square foot or Newtons per square meter).
72
 As sketched in Figure 1.15, p acts normal to the
surface, and τ acts tangential to the surface.

Figure: Illustration of pressure and shear stress on an

aerodynamic surface.
73
  The net effect of the p and τ distributions
integrated over the complete body surface is a
resultant aerodynamic force R and moment M on
the body, as sketched in Figure.

 In turn, the resultant R can be split into components, two

sets of which are shown in Figure below. In Figure 1.17,
V∞ is the relative wind, defined as the flow velocity far
ahead of the body. 74
 The flow far away from the body is called the free
stream, and hence V∞ is also called the free stream
velocity.
 In Figure 1.17, by definition,
L ≡ lift ≡ component of R perpendicular to V∞
D ≡ drag ≡ component of R parallel to V∞ 75
 The chord c is the linear distance from the leading edge to the
trailing edge of the body. Sometimes, R is split into components
perpendicular and parallel to the chord, as also shown in Figure 1.17.
 By definition,
N ≡ normal force ≡ component of R perpendicular to c
A ≡ axial force ≡ component of R parallel to c
 The angle of attack α is defined as the angle between c and V∞.
Hence, α is also the angle between L and N and between D and A.
 The geometrical relation between these two sets of components is,
from Figure 1.17,

76
 TYPES OF FLOW

 The study of aerodynamics has evolved into a study of

numerous and distinct types of flow.
 The purpose of this section is to itemize and contrast
these types of flow, and to briefly describe their most
important physical phenomena.
1. Inviscid Versus Viscous Flow
 The transport (flow) on a molecular scale gives rise to the
phenomena of mass diffusion, viscosity (friction), and
thermal conduction. All real flows exhibit the effects of
these transport phenomena; such flows are called viscous
flows.
 In contrast, a flow that is assumed to involve no friction,
thermal conduction, or diffusion is called an inviscid flow.
Inviscid flows do not truly exist in nature. 77
2. Incompressible Versus Compressible
Flows
 A flow in which the density ρ is constant is called
incompressible. In contrast, a flow where the
density is variable is called compressible.
 We will simply note that all flows, to a greater or
lesser extent, are compressible; truly incompressible
flow, where the density is precisely constant, does
not occur in nature.
 However, analogous to our discussion of inviscid
flow, there are a number of aerodynamic problems
that can be modeled as being incompressible
78
without any detrimental loss of accuracy.
 Lift and Stalls
AIRFOIL:
 An airplane wing has a special shape called an airfoil.
 As a wing moves through air, the air is split and passes above
and below the wing.

 The wing’s upper surface is shaped so the air rushing over the
top speeds up and stretches out. This decreases the air
pressure above the wing.
 The air flowing below the wing moves in a straighter line,79 so
 AIRFOIL TERMINOLOGY
 Relative wind: is the airflow the airplane experiences as it moves
through the air. It is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to
the flight path.
 An airplane’s flight path is the path described by its center of
gravity as it moves through an air mass.

Pitch attitude (θ) is the angle

between an airplane’s
longitudinal axis and the
horizon.

 Angle of attack (α): is the angle between the relative wind and the
chordline of an airfoil. Angle of attack is often abbreviated AOA.
Flight path, relative wind, and angle of attack should never80 be
 AIRFOIL TERMINOLOGY

 The mean camber line is a line drawn halfway between the upper
and lower surfaces. If the mean camber line is above the chordline,
the airfoil has positive camber.
 If it is below the chordline, the airfoil has negative camber. If the
mean camber line is coincident with the chordline, the airfoil is a
symmetric airfoil. Airfoil thickness is the height of the airfoil profile.

Fig. Airfoil Terminology 81

 The aerodynamic center is the point along the
chord line around which all changes in the
aerodynamic force take place.
 Spanwise flow is airflow that travels along the span
of the wing, parallel to the leading edge. Spanwise
flow is normally from the root to the tip. This
airflow is not accelerated over the wing and
therefore produces no lift.
 Chordwise flow is air flowing at right angles to the
leading edge of an airfoil. Since chordwise flow is
the only flow that accelerates over a wing, it is the
only airflow that produces lift.
82
 AERODYNAMIC FORCES
 The aerodynamic force (AF) is the net force that results
from pressure and friction distribution over an airfoil, and
comes from two components, lift and drag.
 Lift (L) is the component of the aerodynamic force acting
perpendicular to the relative wind.
 Drag (D) is the component of the aerodynamic force acting
parallel to and in the same direction as the relative wind.

Figure: Aerodynamic Forces 83

 Lift and drag are produced by different physical
processes.
 Lift is produced by a lower pressure distribution on
the top of an airfoil than on the bottom.
 Drag results from a combination of friction effects
and a lower pressure distribution behind an airfoil
than in front, and will be discussed in the next
lesson.
 These changes in pressure, along with friction, are
responsible for the net aerodynamic force on an
airfoil.
84
Both lift and drag can be expressed as the product of
dynamic pressure (q), the airfoil surface area (S) and some
coefficient that represents the shape and orientation of the
airfoil.
The coefficient of lift (CL) and the coefficient of drag
(CD) are different.
The equations for lift and drag are:

85
 PRODUCTION OF LIFT
 One of the fundamental forces studied in aerodynamics is lift, or the force that
keeps an airplane in the air. Airplanes fly because they push air down.
 A simplifying assumption made here to ease the discussion of lift is that the
air has zero viscosity.
 Such a gas is referred to as an ideal fluid, and is not subject to friction effects.

Airflow around a symmetric

airfoil at zero angle of attack will
have a streamline pattern similar
to that Cahp-1(streamtube).
As the air strikes the
leading edge of the airfoil,
its velocity will slow to zero
Figure :Airflow Around a Symmetric
at a point called the leading Airfoil
edge stagnation point. 86
In the area around this point, static pressure is very
high. The airflow then separates so that some air
moves over the airfoil and some under it, creating two
streamtubes.
Airflow leaving the area of the leading edge
stagnation point will be accelerated due to the
decrease in the area of each streamtube.
The airflow on both surfaces will reach a maximum
velocity at the point of maximum thickness. The
airflow then slows until it reaches the trailing edge,
where it again slows to zero at a point called the
trailing edge stagnation point. Around the trailing edge
stagnation point is another area of high static pressure.
87
 In the areas where the airflow velocity is greater
than the free airstream velocity, the dynamic
pressure is greater and the static pressure is lower.
 In the areas where the airflow velocity is lower than
the free airstream velocity (in particular near the two
stagnation points), the dynamic pressure is lower
and the static pressure is higher.

88
 A symmetric airfoil at zero angle of attack produces
identical velocity increases and static pressure
decreases on both the upper and lower surfaces. Since
there is no pressure differential perpendicular to the
relative wind, the airfoil produces zero net lift.
 The arrows in Figure indicate static pressure relative to
ambient static pressure. Arrows pointing toward the
airfoils indicate higher static pressure; arrows pointing
away from the airfoils indicate lower static pressure.
Figure: Pressure Distribution
Around Symmetric Airfoil at
Zero and Positive AOA

89
 A cambered airfoil is able to produce an uneven
pressure distribution even at zero AOA.
 Because of the positive camber, the area in the
streamtube above the wing is smaller than area in
the streamtube below the wing and the airflow
velocity above the wing is greater than the velocity
below the wing.

Figure : Airflow Around a Positively

90
Cambered Airfoil
Airfoil camber line variations.

91
 FACTORS AFFECTING LIFT

 There are eight factors that affect lift. The first three
are readily apparent: Density (ρ), Velocity (V), and
Surface Area (S).
 The five remaining factors are all accounted for
within the coefficient of lift. As stated, both angle of
attack (α) and camber affect the production of lift.
 The remaining three factors are not so easily
discernable. They are aspect ratio (AR), viscosity
(μ) and compressibility.
92
 Density (ρ)
 When an airfoil is exposed to greater dynamic pressure (q), it encounters more air
particles and thus produces more lift.
 Therefore, lift is dependent upon the density of the air (i.e., the altitude) and the
velocity of the airflow.
 An increase in density or velocity will increase lift.

Wing Surface Area (S)

 Since lift is produced by pressure, which is force per unit area, it
follows that a greater area produces a greater force.
 Therefore, an increase in wing surface area produces greater lift.
Coefficient of Lift
 The coefficient of lift depends essentially on the shape of the airfoil
and the AOA. Flaps are the devices used to change the camber of an
airfoil, and are used primarily for takeoffs and landings.
 When employed, they will be lowered to a particular setting and
remain there until takeoff or landing is complete.
93
 This allows us to consider each separate camber situation (i.e. flap
setting) individually and plot CL against AOA.
 AOA is the most important factor in the coefficient of lift, and the
easiest for the pilot to change.

Fig. Camber vs. AOA

 These curves are for three different airfoils
 One symmetric, one negative camber and
one positive camber.

 The shape of the CL curve is similar for most airfoils. At zero angle of
attack, the positive camber airfoil has a positive CL, and the negative
camber airfoil has a negative CL.
 The point where the curves cross the horizontal axis is the AOA where
the airfoil produces no lift (CL = 0). At zero AOA the symmetric
94
airfoil has CL = 0.
  The positive camber airfoil must be at a negative AOA, and the
negative camber airfoil must be at a positive AOA for the CL to be
equal zero.
 As angle of attack increases, the coefficient of lift initially increases.
In order to maintain level flight while increasing angle of attack,
velocity must decrease. Otherwise, lift will be greater than weight
and the airplane will climb. Velocity and angle of attack are
inversely related in level flight.

 As angle of attack continues to increase, the coefficient of lift

increases up to a maximum value
 The AOA at which CLmax is reached is called CLmax AOA.
 Any increase in angle of attack beyond CLmax AOA causes a
decrease in the coefficient of lift.
 Since CLmax is the greatest coefficient of lift that can be produced,
we call CLmax AOA the most effective angle of attack. 95
 Note that as long as the shape of an airfoil remains constant,
CLmax AOA will remain constant, regardless of weight,
dynamic pressure, bank angle, etc.
 The pilot has no control over aspect ratio, viscosity
and compressibility. Aspect ratio deals with the shape
of the wing. Viscosity affects the aerodynamic force
since it decreases the velocity of the airflow
immediately adjacent to the wing’s surface.
 Although we consider subsonic airflow to be
incompressible, it does compress slightly when it
encounters the wing. Because there is no way to
control aspect ratio, viscosity, or compressibility, they
will be ignored in this discussion unless specifically
addressed. 96
 Note that the lift vector is always perpendicular to the
relative wind.
 Although lift is often thought of as an upward force
opposing weight, it can act in any direction.
 In Figure below, the relative wind and lift vectors are
shown for an airfoil during a loop maneuver.

Figure: Lift in a Loop

97
Summary
For an airplane in flight, the actual magnitudes of L, D, and M depend not
only on α, but on velocity and altitude as well. In fact, we can expect that the
variations of L, D, and M depend at least on:
1. Freestream velocity Vꝏ
2. Freestream density pꝏ , that is, on altitude.
3. Size of the aerodynamic surface. For airplanes, we will use the wing area
S to indicate size.
4. Angle of attack α.
5. Shape of the airfoil.
6. Viscosity coefficient µꝏ (because the aerodynamic forces are generated
in
part from skin friction distributions).
7. Compressibility of the airflow.compressibility effects are governed by the
value of the freestream Mach number, Mꝏ = Vꝏ/αꝏ
• Since Vꝏ is already listed above, we can therefore designate αꝏ as our
index for compressibility.
98
Hence, we can write that, for a given shape airfoil at a given angle of attack

In principle, for a given airfoil at a given angle of attack, we could find the
variation of L by performing a myriad of wind-tunnel experiments wherein
Vꝏ, Pꝏ , S, µꝏ and αꝏ are individually varied and then try to make sense out
of the resulting huge collection of data. This is the hard way. Instead, we
could ask the question, are there groupings of the quantities V ꝏ pꝏ , S, µꝏ ,
αꝏ , and L such that the above equation can be written in terms of fewer
parameters? The answer is yes. In the process of developing this answer, we
will gain some insight into the beauty of nature as applied to aerodynamics.

99
 Airfoil and Airfoil Data
A goal of theoretical aerodynamics is to predict values of ct, cd,
and cm from the basic equations and concepts of physical
science. However, simplifying assumptions are usually
necessary to make the mathematics tractable. Therefore,
when theoretical results are obtained, they are generally not
"exact." A large bulk of experimental airfoil data was compiled
over the years by the National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics (NACA), which was absorbed in the creation of the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in
1958. Lift, drag, and moment coefficients were systematically
measured for many airfoil shapes in low-speed subsonic wind
tunnels. These measurements were carried out on straight,
constant-chord wings which completely spanned the tunnel
test section from one side wall to the other. 100
101
102
 NACA 4 Series Airfoil
The NACA airfoil nomenclature refers to the system
developed by the National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics (NACA) in the early 20th century to
classify and describe different types of airfoils. The
system uses a four-digit code to represent the
airfoil's characteristics and shape. Each digit in the
code has a specific meaning and represents a
particular aspect of the airfoil's design.
Let's break down the meaning of each digit in the
NACA airfoil code.
103
The first digit: This represents the maximum
camber of the airfoil as a percentage of the
chord length. The camber refers to the curvature
of the airfoil's upper surface. A first digit of '0'
indicates that the airfoil does not have camber.
The second digit: This represents the position of
the maximum camber along the chord length. It
is typically given as a percentage of the chord.
For example, a second digit of '4' means that the
maximum camber is located 40% of the chord
length from the leading edge.
104
The third digit: This indicates the maximum thickness of the airfoil
as a percentage of the chord length. It represents the distance
between the upper and lower surfaces of the airfoil when measured
perpendicular to the chord line. For instance, a third digit of '1'
means that the maximum thickness is 10% of the chord length.
The fourth digit: This digit is optional and represents the design lift
coefficient of the airfoil. It indicates the lift characteristics of the
airfoil at its maximum lift-to-drag ratio. If the fourth digit is not
present, it typically means that the airfoil's design lift coefficient is 0.
• To summarize, the NACA airfoil nomenclature provides
information about the airfoil's camber, position of maximum
camber, maximum thickness, and optionally, the design lift
coefficient. For example, an airfoil with the code NACA 2412 has
a maximum camber of 2% located at 40% of the chord length, a
maximum thickness of 12% of the chord length, and a design lift
coefficient that is not specified.

105
106
 NACA 5 Series Airfoils
In addition to the four-digit NACA airfoil nomenclature, there are also
five-digit and six-digit codes that provide more detailed information
about the airfoil's shape. Let's explore each of these codes:
NACA 5-digit airfoils:
The five-digit NACA airfoil code provides additional information
about the thickness distribution along the airfoil's chord length. Each
digit in the code has a specific meaning:
The first digit: This represents the maximum camber of the airfoil as
a percentage of the chord length, similar to the four-digit code.
The second digit: This digit represents the position of the maximum
camber along the chord length, just like in the four-digit code.

107
The third digit: It indicates the maximum thickness of the
airfoil as a percentage of the chord length, similar to the
four-digit code.
The fourth and fifth digits: These digits represent the
location of the maximum thickness. However, unlike the
second digit in the four-digit code that represents the
position as a percentage, the fourth and fifth digits
provide the location as a multiple of 1/10th of the chord
length. For example, if the fourth and fifth digits are '12', it
means that the maximum thickness is located 1.2 times
the chord length from the leading edge.
108
NACA 24012 Airfoil

109
 NACA 6 Series Airfoils
The six-digit NACA airfoil code provides even more detailed information about the
airfoil's shape by incorporating the camber line slope. Each digit in the code has a
specific meaning:
The first digit: This represents the maximum camber of the airfoil as a percentage
of the chord length, similar to both the four-digit and five-digit codes.
The second and third digits: These digits represent the position of the maximum
camber along the chord length, similar to the four-digit code.
The fourth and fifth digits: These digits indicate the maximum thickness of the
airfoil as a percentage of the chord length, similar to the four-digit and five-digit
codes.
The sixth digit: This digit represents the camber line slope of the airfoil. It
indicates the rate at which the camber changes along the chord length. A positive
value indicates a concave-upward camber, while a negative value indicates a
concave-downward camber.

110
NACA 63(1)-212 Airfoil

111
Example 1. A model wing of constant chord length is
placed in a low-speed subsonic wind tunnel, spanning
the test section. The wing has a NACA 2412 airfoil and
a chord length of 1.3 m. The flow in the test section is
at a velocity of 50 m/s at standard sea-level
conditions. If the wing is at a 4° angle of attack,
calculate :
• (a) c1, cd, and cm,c/4 and
• (b) the lift, drag, and moments about the quarter
chord, per unit span.

112
113
114
Example 2: The same wing in the same flow as
in Example 5.1 is pitched to an angle of attack
such that the lift per unit span is 700 N (157 lb).
(a) What is the angle of attack?
(b) To what angle of attack must the wing be
pitched to obtain zero lift?

115
 STALLS

THE BOUNDARY LAYER

 In the preceding discussion of lift, an assumption was made that air
was an ideal fluid, with no viscosity or friction effects.
 In actually, when air flows across any surface, friction develops. The
air immediately next to the surface slows to near zero velocity as it
gives up kinetic energy to friction.
 As a viscous fluid resists flow or shearing, the adjacent layer of air is
also slowed. Succeeding streamlines are slowed less, until eventually
some outer streamline reaches the free airstream velocity.

116
 The boundary layer is that layer of airflow over a surface that
demonstrates local airflow retardation due to viscosity.
 It is usually no more than 1mm thick (the thickness of a playing card) at
the leading edge of an airfoil, and grows in thickness as it moves aft over
the surface.
 The boundary layer has two types of airflow: Laminar & Turbulent
 Laminar flow, the air moves smoothly along in streamlines. A laminar
boundary layer produces very little friction, but is easily separated from the
surface.
 In turbulent flow, the streamlines break up and the flow is disorganized and
irregular. A turbulent boundary layer produces higher friction drag than a
laminar boundary layer, but adheres better to the upper surface of the airfoil,
delaying boundary layer separation.
 Any object that moves through the air will develop a boundary layer that
varies in thickness according to the type of surface. The type of flow in the
boundary layer depends on its location on the surface. The boundary layer
will be laminar only near the leading edge of the airfoil. As the air flows aft,
the laminar layer becomes turbulent. The turbulent layer will continue to
increase in thickness as it flows aft. 117
Figure: Boundary Layer Separation

118
 Stall
 A stall is a condition of flight in which an increase in AOA
results in a decrease in CL.
 increasing the angle of attack to a point at which the wings
fail to produce enough lift is dangerous, and can result in a
crash if the pilot fails to make a timely correction.

Therefore, CLmax AOA is known as the stalling angle of

attack or critical angle of attack, and the region beyond
CLmax AOA is the stall region. 119
The highest value of CL is referred to as CLmax,
and any increase in AOA beyond CLmax AOA
produces a decrease in CL.
 The only cause of a stall is excessive AOA. Stalls
result in decreased lift, increased drag, and an
altitude loss.
 They are particularly dangerous at low altitude or
when allowed to develop into a spin.
 The only action necessary for stall recovery is to
decrease AOA below CLmax AOA.

120
In Figure CL increases linearly over a large range of angles of attack
then reaches a peak and begins to decrease.

121
 STALL INDICATIONS
 There are a number of devices that may give the pilot a
warning of an impending stall.
 They include AOA indicators, rudder pedal shakers, stick
shakers, horns, buzzers, warning lights and other devices.
 Some of these devices receive their input from attitude
gyros, accelerometers, or flight data computers, but most
receive input from an AOA probe.
 The AOA probe is mounted on the fuselage or wing and has
a transmitter vane that remains aligned with the relative
wind.
 The vane transmits the angle of attack of the relative wind
to a cockpit AOA indicator or is used to activate other stall
warning devices.
122
 STALL SPEED
 As angle of attack increases, up to CLmax AOA, true
airspeed decreases in level flight.
 Since CL decreases beyond CLmax AOA, true airspeed
cannot be decreased any further. Therefore the minimum
airspeed required for level flight occurs at CLmax AOA.
 Stall speed (VS) is the minimum true airspeed required
to maintain level flight at CLmax AOA.
 Although the stall speed may vary, the stalling AOA
remains constant for a given airfoil.
 Since lift and weight are equal in equilibrium flight,
weight (W) can be substituted for lift (L) in the lift
equation. 123
 For steady, level flight,
W=L
 By solving for velocity (V), we derive a basic equation for stall speed.

 The stall speed discussed above assumes that aircraft engines are at
idle, and is called power-off stall speed.
 Power-on stall speed will be less than power-off stall speed because
at high pitch attitudes, part of the weight of the airplane is actually
being supported by the vertical component of the thrust vector.

Figure: Power-On Stall

124
Solution

125
 High Lift Devices

 High lift devices also affect stall speeds since they

increase CL at high AOA. The primary purpose of high
lift devices is to reduce takeoff and landing speeds by
reducing stall speed.
 The increase in CL allows a decrease in airspeed. For
example, an airplane weighing 20,000 pounds flying at
250 knots develops 20,000 pounds of lift. As the
airplane slows to 125 knots for landing, high lift devices
can increase CL so that 20,000 pounds of lift can still be
produced at the lower velocity.
 There are two common types of high lift devices:
 Those that delay boundary layer separation, and those 126
 Boundary Layer Control Devices
 The maximum value of CL is limited by the AOA at which
boundary layer separation occurs.
 If airflow separation can be delayed to an AOA higher than
normal stalling AOA, a higher CLmax can be achieved.
 Both CLmax and CLmax AOA increase with the use of
Boundary Layer Control (BLC) devices.

Figure: Effect of BLC

127
 Slots operate by allowing the high static pressure air beneath
the wing to be accelerated through a nozzle and injected into
the boundary layer on the upper surface of the airfoil.
 As the air is accelerated through the nozzle, its potential
energy is converted to kinetic energy. Using this extra
kinetic energy, the turbulent boundary layer is able to
overcome the adverse pressure gradient and adhere to the
airfoil at higher AOAs.

Figure Slat and Slot

 There are generally two types of slots, fixed slots 128and

 Slots........

 Fixed slots are gaps located at the leading edge of a wing

that allow air to flow from below the wing to the upper
surface.
 High pressure air from the vicinity of the leading edge
stagnation point is directed through the slot, which acts as a
nozzle converting the static pressure into dynamic pressure.
 The high kinetic energy air leaving the nozzle increases the
energy of the boundary layer and delays separation.
 This is very efficient and causes only a small increase in
drag.

129
 Slots........
 Slats are moveable leading edge sections used to form
automatic slots. When the slat deploys, it opens a slot.
Some slats are deployed aerodynamically.
 At low AOA, the slat is held flush against the leading edge
by the high static pressure around the leading edge
stagnation point.
 When the airfoil is at a high AOA, the leading edge
stagnation point and associated high pressure area move
down away from the leading edge and are replaced by a
low (suction) pressure which creates a chordwise force
forward and actuates the slat.
 Other automatic slots are deployed mechanically,
hydraulically or electrically. 130
 A simple form of BLC is achieved by vortex generators,
which are small vanes installed on the upper surface of an
airfoil to disturb the laminar boundary layer and induce a
turbulent boundary layer.
 This ensures the area behind the vortex generators
benefits from airflow that adheres better to the wing,
delaying separation.

131
 CAMBER CHANGE
 The most common method of increasing CLmax is
increasing the camber of the airfoil. There are various types
of high lift devices that increase the camber of the wing and
increase CLmax.
 Trailing edge flaps are the most common type of high lift
devices, but leading edge flaps are not unusual.
 The change in CL and AOA due to flaps is shown in Figure
Note the value of CL for this
airfoil before and after flaps are
deployed. Extending the flaps
increases the airfoil’s positive
camber, shifting its zero lift point
to the left. Note that the stalling
AOA (CLmax AOA) decreases.132
Figure: Effect of Flaps
 Although stalling AOA decreases, visibility on takeoff and landing
improves due to flatter takeoff and landing attitudes made possible by these
devices.
 Since boundary layer control devices increase stalling AOA, many modern
designs utilize BLC with camber change devices to maintain low pitch
attitudes during approach and landing.
 Flaps also increase the drag on the airplane, enabling a steeper glide slope
and higher power setting during approach without increasing the airspeed.

Types of Flaps
 A plain flap is a simple hinged portion of the trailing edge that is
forced down into the airstream to increase the camber of the airfoil.
 A split flap is a plate deflected from the lower surface of the airfoil.
This type of flap creates a lot of drag because of the turbulent air
between the wing and deflected surface.
 A slotted flap is similar to the plain flap, but moves away from the
wing to open a narrow slot between the flap and wing for boundary
layer control. 133
A slotted flap may cause a slight increase in wing
area, but the increase is insignificant.
The fowler flap is used extensively on larger
airplanes. When extended, it moves down,
increasing the camber, and aft, causing a
significant increase in wing area as well as
opening one or more slots for boundary layer
control.
Because of the larger area created on airfoils with
fowler flaps, a large twisting moment is
developed. This requires a structurally stronger
wing to withstand the increased twisting load and
precludes their use on high speed, thin wings. 134
Figure: Types of Flaps

135
 Leading edge flaps are devices that change the wing
camber at the leading edge of the airfoil.
 They may be operated manually with a switch or
automatically by computer. Leading edge plain flaps are
similar to a trailing edge plain flap. Leading edge slotted
flaps are similar to trailing edge slotted flaps, but are
sometimes confused with automatic slots. Often the terms
are interchangeable since many leading edge devices have
some characteristics of both flaps and slats.
 The exact stall speed for various airplane conditions are
given in stall speed charts in an airplane’s flight manual.
The directions on how to use the stall speed chart are on the
chart itself and are self-explanatory.
136
 STALL RECOVERY

 To produce the required lift at slow airspeeds, the

pilot must fly at high angles of attack.
 Because flying slow at high angles of attack is one
of the most critical phases of flight, pilots practice
recovering from several types of stalls during
training.
 The steps in a stall recovery involve simultaneously
adding power, relaxing back stick pressure and
rolling wings level (“Max, relax, level”).

137
 The pilot adds power to help increase airspeed, breaking
any descent due to the stall (especially at low altitudes)
and restoring a velocity greater than Vs.
 The pilot must decrease the angle of attack to recover
from a stalled condition, as the only reason the aircraft
stalled was that it exceeded its stalling angle of attack .
 The pilot’s initial reaction, especially at low altitudes,
might be to pull the nose up. However, the exact
opposite must be done.
 The stick must be moved forward to decrease the angle
of attack and allow the wing to provide sufficient lift to
fly once again.
138
 By lowering the nose, angle of attack is decreased and the
boundary layer separation point moves back toward the
trailing edge, restoring lift.
 The pilot rolls out of bank to wings level to help decrease
the stall velocity and use all available lift to break any
descent due to the stall.
𝑪𝑳

𝑪 𝑳𝒎𝒂𝒙

𝜶 𝑪𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 AOA()
139
Chapter-4
Drag

140
 DRAG
 Drag is the component of the aerodynamic force that is
parallel to the relative wind, and acts in the same direction.
The drag equation is the same as the aerodynamic force
equation, except that that the coefficient of drag (CD) is
used.

 CD may be plotted against

angle of attack for a given
aircraft with a constant
configuration (Figure).
 Note that CD is low and nearly
constant at very low angles of
attack. As angle of attack
increases, CD rapidly increases. 141
Figure :Coefficient of Drag
 Since there is always some resistance to motion, drag will
never be zero, so CD will never be zero.
 Drag is divided into parasite drag and induced drag.
 By independently studying the factors that affect each type,
we can better understand how they act when combined.

PARASITE DRAG
 Parasite drag (DP) is composed of form drag, friction
drag and interference drag.
 It is all drag that is not associated with the production of
lift.
 Form drag, also known as pressure drag or profile
drag, is caused by airflow separation from a surface and
142
the low pressure wake that is created by that separation.
 It is primarily dependent upon the shape of the object. In Figure
A, the flat plate has a leading edge stagnation point at the front
with a very high static pressure.
 There is also a low static pressure wake area behind the plate. This
pressure differential pulls the plate backward and retards forward
motion.
 Conversely, streamlines flow smoothly over a smooth shape
(Figure B and Figure C) and less form drag is developed.

Figure A: Flat Plate Figure B: Sphere Figure C; Streamlining

143
 To reduce form drag, the fuselage and other surfaces
exposed to the airstream are streamlined (shaped like a
teardrop).
 Streamlining reduces the size of the high static pressure area
near the leading edge stagnation point and reduces the size
of the low static pressure wake.
 Because of the decreased pressure differential, form drag is
decreased.
 Due to viscosity, a retarding force called friction drag is
created in the boundary layer.
 Turbulent flow creates more friction drag than laminar flow.
 Friction drag is usually small per unit area, but since the
boundary layer covers the entire surface of the airplane,
friction drag can become significant in larger airplanes.
144
 Rough surfaces increase the thickness of the boundary layer and
create greater skin friction.
 Friction drag can be reduced by smoothing the exposed surfaces of
the airplane through painting, cleaning, waxing or polishing.
 Since irregularities of the wing’s surface cause the boundary layer to
become turbulent, using flush rivets on the leading edges also reduces
friction.
 Since friction drag is much greater in the turbulent boundary layer, it
might appear that preventing the laminar flow from becoming
turbulent would decrease drag.
 However, if the boundary layer were all laminar airflow, it would
easily separate from the surface, creating a large wake behind the
airfoil and increasing form drag.
 Since turbulent airflow adheres to the surface better than laminar
flow, maintaining turbulent airflow on an airfoil will significantly
reduce form drag with only a small increase in friction. For this
reason a golf ball with dimples will go farther than a smooth ball, as it
145
has less form drag..
 Interference drag is generated by the mixing of
streamlines between components.
 An example is the air flowing around the fuselage
mixing with air flowing around an external fuel
tank. We know the drag of the fuselage and the drag
of the fuel tank individually. The total drag after we
attach the fuel tank will be greater than the sum of
the fuselage and the fuel tank separately.
 Roughly 5 to 10 percent of the total drag on an
airplane can be attributed to interference drag.
 Interference drag can be minimized by proper
fairing and filleting, which allows the streamlines to
146
A wing root can cause interference drag.

147
 Total parasite drag (DP) can be found by
multiplying dynamic pressure by an area.
 Equivalent parasite area (f) is the area of a flat plate
perpendicular to the relative wind that would
produce the same amount of drag as form drag,
friction drag and interference drag combined.
 It is not the cross-sectional area of the airplane. The
equation for DP is:

148
 Parasite drag varies directly with velocity squared
(), so a doubling of speed will result in four times as
much parasite drag (Figure).

Figure:
149
 INDUCED DRAG
 Induced drag (DI) is that portion of total drag associated
with the production of lift.
 We can add the airflow at the leading edge and the airflow
at the trailing edge of the wing in order to determine the
average relative wind in the immediate vicinity of the wing.
 Since there is twice as much downwash as up wash near the
wing tips of a finite wing, the average relative wind has a
downward slant compared to the free airstream relative
wind.
 The total lift vector will now be inclined aft, as it in order
to remain perpendicular to the average relative wind. The
total lift vector has components that are perpendicular and
parallel to the free airstream relative wind. 150
 The perpendicular component of total lift is called
effective lift. Because total lift is inclined aft,
effective lift will be less than total lift.
 The parallel component of total lift is called
induced drag since it acts in the same direction as
drag and tends to retard the forward motion of the
airplane.

151
Figure: Induced Drag Figure: DI vs. Velocity
 The DI equation is derived from the aerodynamic
force equation and the assumption that weight
equals lift in equilibrium level flight:

 Analyzing the equation shows that increasing the weight of

an airplane will increase induced drag, since a heavier
airplane requires more lift to maintain level flight. Induced
drag is reduced by increasing density (ρ), velocity (V), or
wingspan (b).
 In level flight where lift is constant, induced drag varies
inversely with velocity, and directly with angle of attack.
Another method to reduce induced drag is to install devices
that impede the span wise airflow around the wingtip. These
devices include winglets, wingtip tanks, and missile rails.
152
 TOTAL DRAG
 Parasite and Induced drag can be added together to
create a total drag curve.
 By superimposing both drag curves on the same
graph, and adding the values of induced and parasite
drag at each velocity, the total drag curve of Figure
below is derived.
 The numbers 1, 9, and 28 depicted near the curve are
the angle of attack scale. Note that they decrease as
TAS increases. The drag curve depicted is particular
to one weight, one altitude and one configuration.
 As weight, altitude and configuration change, the
total drag curve will shift. 153
Figure A: DT vs. Velocity 154
 LIFT TO DRAG RATIO
 An airfoil is designed to produce lift, but drag is
unavoidable.
 An airfoil that produced the desired lift but caused
excessive drag would not be very useful.
 We use the lift to drag ratio (L/D) to determine the
efficiency of an airfoil. A high L/D ratio indicates a
more efficient airfoil.
 L/D is calculated by dividing lift by drag. All terms
except CL and CD cancel out:

155
 A ratio of the coefficients at a certain angle of attack
determines the L/D ratio at that angle of attack. The L/D ratio
can be plotted against angle of attack along with C L and CD
(Figure).  The maximum L/D ratio is called
L/DMAX. For the airplane in Figure
A and Figure B, L/DMAX AOA is 9
units. Since angle of attack
indicators are far less precise than
airspeed indicators, pilots will
typically fly an airspeed that
corresponds to L/DMAX AOA.
L/DMAX AOA produces the
minimum total drag.
 L/DMAX is located at the bottom of
the total drag curve. Any movement
away from L/DMAX will increase
Figure B: Lift to Drag Ratio
drag. 156
 At L/DMAX AOA, parasite drag and induced drag are equal. At
velocities below L/DMAX, the airplane is affected primarily by
induced drag, while at velocities above L/DMAX, the airplane is
affected primarily by parasite drag.
 L/DMAX AOA produces the greatest ratio of lift to drag. Note that
this is not the maximum amount of lift that can be produced, nor
does it correspond to the airplanes maximum speed.
 L/DMAX AOA is the most efficient angle of attack. Note that L/D
is the efficiency of the wing, not the engine.
 An increase in weight or altitude will increase L/DMAX airspeed,
but not affect L/DMAX or L/DMAX AOA. A change in
configuration may have a large effect on L/DMAX and L/DMAX
airspeed. The effect of configuration on L/DMAX AOA will
depend on what causes the change (lowering landing gear or flaps,
dropping external stores, speed brakes, etc.), and how much change
is produced.
These changes in L/DMAX are the topic of the next lesson. 157
 In Summary Form Drag

 Drag is the force

which acts parallel to
the relative flow
(opposite to the
direction of flight)

Drag Chute Friction Drag

158
 Questions
1. Define drag and list the factors that affect it.
2. What happens to the coefficient of drag with an increase in angle of attack? When will the coefficient
of drag equal zero?
3. Define parasite drag and name the three primary types.
4. State the equation for parasite drag, and identify its variables.
5. State methods of reducing each type of parasite drag.
6. Graph parasite drag vs velocity and describe their relationship.
7. State the equation for induced drag, and identify its variables.
8. State the equations for total drag.
9. Increasing airspeed while maintaining level flight will cause (you may select more than one.
A. An increase in induced drag
B. An increase in parasite drag
C. A decrease in induced drag
D. A decrease in parasite drag
10. What does the L/D ratio represent? How is it calculated? How does a pilot determine what L/D ratio he is
flying at?

159
 CHAPTER 5
Thrust and Power

160
 Introduction
 The various aspects of airplane performance result from
a combination of airframe and power plant
characteristics.
 These characteristics at various conditions of flight are
depicted on thrust and power curves.
 These can be used to find
 Maximum endurance,
 Range,
 Angle of climb,
 Rate of climb,
 Glide endurance and
 Glide range. 161
 THRUST AND POWER CURVES

In order to gain an understanding of various

performance profiles, we must first establish
some assumptions about our airplane and the
charts we are about to use:
1. Equilibrium flight on a standard day.
2. No afterburner for a turbojet.
3. Fixed pitch propeller for a turboprop.

162
 THRUST REQUIRED
 Remember that drag takes the form shown below, being
composed of parasitic drag that increases with the square of
the flight velocity, and an induced drag, or drag due to lift,
that decreases in proportion to the inverse of the flight
velocity.

Fig. Components of drag 163

where: b=Wing span
S= Wing Area

164
DT = D P + DI

1 1
2
DP= 𝜌 𝑆 𝑉❑𝐶 and D I = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆 𝐶 𝐷𝑖
2 𝐷𝑜 2

165
 In equilibrium flight total thrust must equal to total
drag. Therefore, the amount of thrust that is required
to overcome drag can be found on the total drag
curve.
 This amount of thrust is called thrust required (TR),
and is expressed in pounds (Newton). As with the
drag curve, the thrust required curve is for one
specific weight, altitude and configuration.
 (L/D)Max AOA is the point of minimum thrust
required, and is obtained at some specific velocity.
 Flight at greater velocities requires a reduction in
AOA (to maintain a constant lift/weight ratio) and an
increase in thrust (to match the increase in parasite
166
Flight at lower velocities requires an increase in angle of
attack and an increase in thrust (to match the increase in
induced drag).

Figure 1: Total Drag Figure 2: Thrust Required

167
 POWER REQUIRED
 Power is the rate of doing work, and work is a force times a
distance.
 Power required (PR) is the amount of power that is required to
produce thrust required.
 PR is the product of TR and velocity (V).
 Now we can look at the propulsion system requirements to
maintain steady level flight since

168
 Thus the power required (for steady level flight)
takes the form

Figure 3: Typical power required curve for an aircraft

169
 THRUST AVAILABLE
 Thrust available (TA) is the amount of thrust that the
airplane’s engines actually produce at a given throttle
setting, velocity, and density.
 The most important factor is the throttle, called the
power control lever (PCL) in turboprops.
 For simplicity, we will use the term throttle.
Maximum engine output occurs at full throttle.
 As the throttle is retarded, thrust available decreases.
Since the propeller can only accelerate the air to a
maximum velocity, as the velocity of the incoming
air increases, the air is accelerated less through the
propeller, and thrust available decreases (Figure ).
170
Turbojets do not suffer a decrease in thrust available with
velocity because ram-effect overcomes the decreased
acceleration (Figure below). Therefore, TA is approximated
by a straight line. As the density of the air decreases, thrust
available decreases.

171
 Unlike the thrust required TR which has almost everything
to do with the airframe (including the weight) of the
airplane and virtually nothing to do with the power plant,
the thrust available TA has almost everything to do with the
power plant and virtually nothing to do with the airframe.
 This statement is not completely true; b/c there is always
some aerodynamic interaction between the airframe and the
power plant.
 For conventional, low-speed airplanes, this interaction is
usually small. However, for modern transonic and
supersonic airplanes, it becomes more of a consideration.

172
 POWER AVAILABLE
 Power available (PA) is the amount of power that the
airplane’s engines actually produce at a given throttle
setting, velocity, and density.
 The most important factor is throttle setting.
 Maximum power available occurs at full throttle. As the
throttle is retarded, power available decreases.
 As velocity increases, power available for a jet will
increase linearly, while power available for a prop will
initially increase, but will then decrease due to a decrease
in thrust available (Figures).
 As thrust available decreases with a decrease in density,
power available will also decrease.
173
174
 THRUST EXCESS AND POWER EXCESS
 A comparison of the TR and TA curves on one graph allows us to
predict airplane performance.
 To maintain equilibrium level flight, thrust available must equal
thrust required for a specific angle of attack and velocity. This is
depicted on a graph where the TR and TA curves cross.
 The right-hand point of equilibrium will produce the maximum
velocity in level flight. This is the greatest airspeed that the aircraft
can maintain without descending.

175
Thrust Excess (Turbojet) Thrust Excess (Turboprop)
 A thrust excess (TE) occurs if thrust available is greater
than thrust required at a particular velocity. A positive TE
causes an acceleration, a climb, or both, depending on
angle of attack.
 A negative TE is called a thrust deficit and has the opposite
effect.
 Maximum thrust excess occurs at a full throttle setting, and is
depicted on a graph where the distance between the TR and
TA curves is greatest.
 For a turbojet, max thrust excess occurs at (L/D)Max.
 For a turboprop, max thrust excess occurs at a velocity176less
 Power excess (PE) is calculated in a similar manner as
TE and will also produce an acceleration, a climb, or
both. Likewise, a power deficit will cause a decent, a
deceleration, or both.
 For a turbojet, maximum power excess occurs at a
velocity greater than (L/D)Max.
 For a turboprop, max power excess occurs at (L/D)Max.
It is important to note that maximum power excess is
achieved at a greater velocity and a lower angle of attack
than maximum thrust excess.
 It should also be noted that a power excess cannot exist
if thrust excess is zero.
177
Power Excess (Turbojet) Power Excess (Turboprop)

178
179
 FACTORS AFFECTING AND
i. WEIGHT
If an airplane is in equilibrium level flight at a constant
angle of attack, an increase in weight requires an increase in
lift. In order to increase lift at a constant AOA, velocity
must increase. This shifts the TR curve to the right (Figure).

Effect of Weight on TR
180
 A higher velocity and more lift increase both
parasite and induced drag, so total drag increases
and the TR shifts curve up (note that CD remains
constant if AOA is held constant).

 Power required (PR) is similarly affected by weight. An

increase in weight requires an increase in velocity and a
corresponding increase in thrust required (TR) at a specific
angle of attack.
 Since PR is a function of thrust required and velocity, an
increase in weight will result in an increase in power required.
 The net result of an increase in weight is that the TR and PR
181
curves will shift up and right (Figure).
 Weight changes have no effect on thrust
available or power available, as they do not
affect the engine.
 As weight increases, thrust required and
power required increase while thrust
available and power available remain
constant.
 Thus thrust excess and power excess decrease
182
at every AOA and velocity.
ii. ALTITUDE
 If an airplane weighs 5,000lbs at sea level, it requires 5,000lbs of
lift. It will weigh 5,000lbs and require the same lift at any higher
altitude as well.
 Since density has decreased, velocity must increase to maintain
5,000lbs of lift. Thus as altitude increases, the TR curve shifts to
the right.
 Note that the decrease in density is exactly offset by an increase in
velocity to maintain constant lift for any give AOA. In other
words, the dynamic pressure felt by the airfoil remains constant.

 With no change in dynamic pressure as lift is maintained at a

higher altitude for any fixed AOA, drag and TR remain constant.
Thus as altitude increases, the thrust required curve shifts to the
right, but not up (Figure). 183
 Since PR is the product of TR and velocity, the PR curve will
shift to the right as altitude increases and the TR curve shifts to
the right.
 However, since the same thrust is multiplied by a higher velocity,
the PR curve will move up as well (Figure).
 Both the TR and PR curves flatten slightly because of the
decreasing effects of compressibility. 184
Maximum engine output decreases with a reduction in air density.
Thus, both TA and PA decrease at higher altitudes. Thrust excess
will decrease with an increase in altitude due to the decrease in
thrust available.
Power excess will decrease with an increase in altitude because
power available decreases and power required increases.
185
Effect of Altitude on TA (Turbojet) Effect of Altitude on PA (Turbojet)

186
 Effect of Altitude on TA (Turboprop) Effect of Altitude on PA (Turboprop)

iii. CONFIGURATION
 Lowering the landing gear has no effect on the lift produced by the
wing, so at any AOA no change in velocity is required to maintain lift.
 Lowering the landing gear does, however, dramatically increases
parasite drag, which causes TR and PR to increase.
 Thus more thrust and power are required to maintain altitude for any
given AOA and velocity, so both the TR and PR curves shift up. 187
 The landing gear has no effect on the engine, so TA and PA
are not affected. Thrust and power excess will decrease
with deployment of the landing gear because TR and PR
increase.

188
 Lowering the flaps increases the coefficient of lift, allowing
the aircraft to fly at a lower velocity to produce enough lift
to offset weight, so the TR curve shifts left.

 The flaps greatly increase parasite drag. Induced drag also

increases.
 Thus total drag and thrust required increase. Viewed another way
using the drag equation, the decrease in velocity is more than
offset by the increase in the coefficient of drag, causing thrust
required to increase.

189
As with the landing gear, flaps have no effect on the engine,
so TA and PA are not affected.
Thrust and power excess will decrease with deployment of
the flaps because thrust and power required increase.
190
 Work Sheet
1. Define thrust required. Where does the TR curve come from?
2. How is power computed from thrust?
3. Minimum TR occurs _________ (L/D)MAX and minimum PR occurs _________
(L/D)MAX.
A. at, faster than B. slower than, at C. at, slower than D. faster than, at
4. Define thrust available and power available.
5. The angle of attack for maximum TE will be ___________ for a turbojet and ________
for a
turboprop.
A. less than L/DMAX AOA, equal to L/DMAX AOA
B. equal to L/DMAX AOA, less than L/DMAX AOA
C. equal to L/DMAX AOA, greater than L/DMAX AOA
D. greater than L/DMAX AOA, equal to L/DMAX AOA
6. How are the TR and PR curves affected by increased weight? Increased altitude?
7. How are TA and PA affected by throttle/PCL setting? By altitude? By weight?
8. How do altitude and weight affect PE and TE?

191
 CHAPTER 6

Airplane Performance

192
 INTRODUCTION
 The thrust and power curves discussed in chapter 5 allow one to
find maximum endurance, range, angle of climb, rate of climb,
glide endurance and glide range.
 This chapter covers the basic concepts in this area.
 Performance is a study to see if the aircraft meets all the
requirements.
 Level Flight (Is there enough thrust and/or power?)
 Climb Performance (Will it meet the requirement that the
aircraft can gain altitude at a required rate given in feet/sec?)
 Range (How far can it fly without refueling?)
 Takeoff and Landing Requirements
 Others… (e.g. Turn radius, Maneuverability…)
 Performance engineers are hired by airlines, buyers, and aircraft
companies. 193
 FORCES ACTING ON AIRCRAFT (Recalled)
 Model airplane as rigid body with four natural forces acting on it
1. Lift, L
• Acts perpendicular to flight path (perpendicular to relative wind)
2. Drag, D
• Acts parallel to flight path direction (parallel to relative wind)
3. Propulsive Thrust, T
• For most airplanes propulsive thrust acts in flight path direction
• May also be inclined with respect to flight path angle, a T, usually a
small angle
4. Weight, W
• Always acts vertically toward center of earth
• Inclined at angle, q, with respect to lift direction
 Apply Newton’s Second Law (F=ma) to curvilinear flight path
– Force balance in direction parallel to flight path
– Force balance in direction perpendicular to flight path 194
 GENERAL EQUATIONS OF MOTION

dV
 Fparallel  T cosT  D  W sin   ma  m dt
2
V
 Fperpendicular  T cosT  D  W sin   m r 195
c
 STATIC VS. DYNAMIC ANALYSES
Two forms of these equations:
1. Static Performance: Zero Accelerations (dV/dt = 0, V2/rc =
0)
– Maximum velocity
– Maximum rate of climb
– Maximum range
– Maximum endurance
2. Dynamic Performance: Accelerating Flight
– Take-off and landing characteristics
– Turning flight
– Accelerated flight and rate of climb
196
 1. LEVEL FLIGHT PERFORMANCE

 Fuel flow is the rate of fuel consumption by the engine,

measured in pounds per hour (pph).
 Since the supply of fuel onboard is limited, the engine’s
fuel flow is a critical determinant of how long and how far
the airplane can fly.
 A turbojet engine directly produces thrust through its
exhaust. Therefore, the fuel consumed by a turbojet engine
is proportional to its thrust available (TA).
 In order to maintain equilibrium flight, thrust available
must be set equal to thrust required (TR), therefore we say
that minimum fuel flow for a turbojet is found on the thrust
required curve.
197
 LEVEL, UNACCELERATED FLIGHT
 Equations of motion reduce to very simple
expressions
– Aerodynamic drag is balanced by thrust of
engine
– Aerodynamic lift is balanced by weight of
airplane
 For most conventional airplanes Tis small enough
such that cos(T)~ 1

T D
L W 198
 The thrust provided by a propeller is not produced directly by
the engine, so there is no direct relationship between thrust and
fuel flow. The engine turns a shaft that turns the propeller that
produces the thrust. In turning the shaft, the engine produces
power. Therefore, for a turboprop, fuel flow varies directly with
the power output of the engine (PA).
 However, minimum fuel flow for equilibrium flight will be
found on the power required (PR) curve.
 Maximum endurance and maximum range are both achieved in
equilibrium, level flight.
 Any thrust or power excess would cause the airplane to either
climb or accelerate. We will look on the thrust required or
power required curve to determine the velocity that our airplane
must fly.
 Once the velocity is determined, the pilot must adjust the
199
throttle to eliminate any thrust or power excess.
 Maximum endurance: is the maximum amount of time
that an airplane can remain airborne on a given amount of
fuel.
 The slower an engine burns fuel, the longer the airplane can
remain airborne.
 Minimum fuel flow occurs at minimum TR for a turbojet
and minimum PR for a turboprop.
 Therefore, maximum endurance is found at (L/D)MAX
AOA and velocity for a turbojet and at a velocity less than
(L/D)MAX, and an angle of attack greater than (L/D)MAX
AOA for a turboprop. (See Figure Below)

200
201
 Maximum range: is the maximum distance traveled over the
ground for a given amount of fuel.
 To find maximum range we must minimize fuel flow per unit of
velocity. Any straight line drawn from the origin represents a
constant ratio of fuel flow to velocity.
 The minimum ratio that allows the airplane to remain airborne
occurs where the line from the origin is tangent to the TR curve
for jets or the PR curve for props.
 Maximum range for a turbojet is found at a velocity greater than
(L/D)Max and an angle of attack less than (L/D)Max AOA.
Maximum range for a turboprop is found at (L/D)Max AOA and
velocity.
 Note that maximum range is faster than maximum endurance.
202
 As explained in the chapter 5, if the weight of an airplane increases, the
thrust required curve and the power required curve (See Figures in CH5)
will both shift to the right and up.
 The shift to the right is due to the higher velocity required to produce
more lift.
 Since thrust represents fuel flow for a turbojet, as TR increases so will
fuel flow for a turbojet. As PR increases, fuel flow for a turboprop will
increase.
 Higher fuel flow means maximum endurance performance will decrease.
 The increased fuel flow will also decrease maximum range performance.
203
 2. CLIMB PERFORMANCE

 A “steady climb” is defined as a climb in which the airplane

is not accelerating; the airplane is in equilibrium.
 However, the altitude is no longer constant. In this
discussion, the same thrust and power curves are used to
analyze level flight to discuss and locate the different climb
performance parameters of an airplane.
 Angle of climb (γ, AOC) is a comparison of altitude gained
to distance traveled.
 For maximum angle of climb, we want maximum vertical
velocity (altitude increase) for a minimum horizontal
velocity (ground speed).

204
 CLIMB PERFORMANCE ………………………

 Maximum AOC is
commonly used when
taking off from a short
airfield surrounded by high
obstacles, such as trees, or
power lines.

The objective is to gain sufficient altitude to clear the

obstacle with the least horizontal distance traveled.
Rate of climb (ROC) is a comparison of altitude gained
relative to the time needed to reach that altitude.
205
 CLIMB PERFORMANCE ………………………

 Flying at maximum rate of climb yields a maximum vertical

velocity. Maximum rate of climb is used to expedite a climb to an
assigned altitude.
 The greatest vertical distance must be gained in the shortest time
possible.
 In a maximum angle of climb profile, a certain airplane takes 30
seconds to reach 1000 feet, but covers only 3000 feet over the
ground.
 Using its maximum rate of climb profile, the same airplane climbs
to 1500 feet in 30 seconds, but covers 6000 feet across the ground.
 It should be noted that both climb profiles are executed at
maximum throttle setting, and that differences between max rate
and max angle of climb lie solely in differences of angle of attack
and velocity.
206
 ANGLE OF CLIMB
 The equations that represent equilibrium in a climb are:

 By rearranging the bottom equation,

we see that:

 Thus, angle of climb performance Figure: Climb Forces

depends upon thrust excess.
 Essentially, the greater the force that
pushes the airplane upwards, the
steeper it can climb. 207
 ANGLE OF CLIMB ………………………
 Maximum angle of climb occurs at the velocity and angle of
attack that produce the maximum thrust excess.
 Therefore, maximum angle of climb for a turbojet occurs at
(L/D)Max AOA and velocity.
 Maximum angle of climb for a turboprop occurs at a velocity
less than (L/D)Max and an angle of attack greater than
(L/D)Max AOA.

Turbojet Angle of Climb Turboprop Angle of Climb 208

 RATE OF
CLIMB
 Rate of climb (ROC) is simply the vertical component
of velocity (Figure):

Then,

Figure-Climb Velocity Vectors

 Thus, rate of climb performance depends upon power excess.

Since climbing is work and power is the rate of doing work, any
power that is not used to maintain level flight can increase the rate
209
of climbing.
 Maximum rate of climb occurs at the velocity and angle
of attack that produce the maximum power excess.
 Therefore, maximum rate of climb for a turbojet occurs at
a velocity greater than (L/D)MAX and an angle of attack
less than (L/D)MAX AOA. Maximum rate of climb for a
turboprop occurs at (L/D)MAX AOA and velocity.

Turbojet Rate of Climb Turboprop Rate of Climb

210
 FACTORS AFFECTING CLIMB PERFORMANCE

 Since weight, altitude, and configuration changes affect

thrust and power excess, they will also affect climb
performance.
 Climb performance is directly dependent upon the ability to
produce either a thrust excess or a power excess.
In the previous lesson, it was
determined that:
 an increase in weight,
will all decrease both
 an increase in altitude, maximum thrust excess and
 lowering the landing gear, or maximum power excess for
 lowering the flaps all airplane.
Therefore, maximum angle of climb and maximum rate of climb
performance will decrease under any of these conditions.
211
 3. GLIDE PERFORMANCE

 Gliding is a condition of flight without any operating engine.

 It does not refer to a single engine failure in a multi-engine
airplane. When our engine fails, we may need to glide as far
as possible to reach a safe landing area. This is a maximum
glide range profile.
 If we lose power within easy reach of a safe runway, we
may decide to fly a maximum glide endurance profile while
the runway is being cleared.
 The equations that represent equilibrium in a glide are:

212
 GLIDE PERFORMANCE
……………….

Figure: Glide Forces

GLIDE RANGE
To achieve maximum glide range, a pilot should maintain the minimum glide angle.
Rearranging the above equation:
Thus, the angle of descent is directly related to the thrust
deficit, TD. To achieve the minimum angle of descent, we
must minimize the thrust deficit, which occurs at (L/D)MAX
(Figure ).
Therefore, maximum glide range occurs at (L/D)MAX.
Maximum glide range velocity (Vbest) is (L/D)MAX for
any airplane regardless of engine type.

Fig. Max Glide Range

213
 GLIDE PERFORMANCE ……………….
IDE ENDURANCE
 Maximizing glide endurance is simply a
matter of minimizing rate of descent (ROD)
or negative vertical velocity.

Figure: Glide Velocity Vectors

To minimize the rate of descent, the pilot must fly

at the velocity where the minimum power deficit
occurs.
This is at the bottom of the PR curve (Figure).

Figure: Glide Endurance

214
4. TAKEOFF AND LANDING PERFORMANCE
4.1. TAKEOFF AND LANDING SPEED
 Takeoffs and landings are transitional maneuvers
during which the weight of the airplane is shifted
between the landing gear and the wings.
 The minimum airspeed for takeoff is approximately
20 percent above the power off stall speed, while
landing speed is about 30 percent higher.
 Thus, both are affected by the same factors that
affect stall speed. This safety margin minimizes
operation in the region of reverse command and
allows for shallow turns after takeoff, especially
215
during an engine failure.
 TAKEOFF AND LANDING SPEED …
 The higher velocity on landing compensates for the
decreased power setting. High lift devices are often
used to decrease takeoff and landing speeds.
 Note that the below equations are expressed in terms
of true airspeed:

 Indicated airspeed for takeoff and landing will not

be affected by changes in air density:

216
 4.2. TAKEOFF AND LANDING FORCES
 Figure shows the forces acting on an airplane during
takeoff or landing.

Figure: Takeoff and Landing Forces

 During ground roll, rolling friction (FR) accounts

for the effects of friction between the landing gear
and the runway. 217
Like any frictional force, it is the product of a
coefficient of friction (μ) and a perpendicular force
(weight-on-wheels or WOW).
WOW is the difference between weight and lift.
The coefficient of friction is dependent upon runway
surface, runway condition, tire type and degree of
brake application. (Rolling resistance mr = 0.02)
Note that brake application should be negligible
during takeoff.

218
TAKEOFF AND LANDING FORCES …

 Takeoff and landing performance are dependent

upon acceleration.
 According to Newton’s Second Law, a body
accelerates in the direction of the unbalanced force
acting on it. Thrust is the most out of balance force
on takeoff. For an airplane to accelerate from zero to
its takeoff speed, it must generate enough thrust to
overcome rolling friction and drag.
 Although thrust and weight may change slightly
during our takeoff, we will consider them to remain
nearly constant. 219
 TAKEOFF AND LANDING FORCES …
 As velocity increases during takeoff, the aerodynamic force
increases, increasing both lift and drag (drag is primarily
parasitic during a takeoff or landing).
 The increase in lift during the takeoff roll decreases the
weight on wheels and rolling friction. T – D - FR is called
the net accelerating force.
 During the landing roll, thrust and weight still remain nearly
constant. Lift and drag are functions of airspeed, so they are
greatest immediately upon touchdown and decrease over the
remaining landing roll. As lift decreases, weight on wheels
increases causing rolling friction to increase. Drag and
rolling friction will decelerate the airplane to a safe taxi
speed. D + FR - T is the net decelerating force.
220

 TAKE-OFF AND LANDING ANALYSES
 Let’s make an analysis of Takeoff
and Landing

dV
F  ma  m
dt
F
dV  dt
m Rolling resistance
F
V 
m
t mr = 0.02
ds  Vdt ,
1
S  V0  at 2 & V  V0  at
2
dV
s
2
2V m F  T  D  R  T  D   r W  L   m
F dt

s: lift-off distance 221

 4.3. TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE
 An equation for determining minimum takeoff
distance is:
where g = gravity.

 Weight is the greatest factor in determining takeoff

distance. Looking at the takeoff distance formula,
we see that doubling the weight will increase the
takeoff distance by a factor of four. Increasing
weight requires greater lift and a higher takeoff
velocity. It also increases rolling friction which
222
decreases the net accelerating force.
 Most takeoff and landing performance charts use
density altitude (DA) to account for air density.
Increasing DA (decreasing air density) requires a
higher takeoff velocity and decreases the amount of
thrust our engine can provide.
 This will decrease the acceleration on the takeoff
roll and increase the minimum takeoff distance.
 There are three major factors that decrease density:
increasing airfield elevation, increasing air
temperature and increasing humidity. Note that
takeoff indicated airspeed remains constant,
regardless of temperature, humidity, and elevation.
223
 Along with weight, these three density factors are the
worst conditions for takeoff and landing.
 A helpful mnemonic device is the “4-H Club,” where
the members of the club are high, hot, heavy and humid.
 Whenever three or more of the 4-H Club are present,
expect extended takeoff and landing distances. Under
extreme circumstances, two or even one of the factors
may cause longer takeoff and landing distances.
 Using high lift devices such as flaps or BLC will
decrease the takeoff distance. High lift devices decrease
both the indicated and true takeoff speeds. Since true
airspeed for takeoff decreases, the ground speed during
takeoff will decrease, thus decreasing takeoff distance.
224
 A headwind will decrease the takeoff distance by reducing
the ground speed associated with the takeoff velocity.
Conversely, a tailwind will increase takeoff distance since
it increases ground speed.

225
 Takeoff Distance continued…
 The takeoff distance consists of two parts:
 the ground run
The distance from where the vehicle leaves the
ground to until it reaches 50ft (15 m)

226
 Factors affecting take-off Distance
 Density
 Altitude
 Atmospheric conditions (pressure, temperature etc..)
 Wind: (Head wind, Tail wind, Cross wind)
 Runway Conditions
• Dry Runway, FAA, A runway is dry when it is neither wet nor contaminated.
• Dry Runway, ICAO, The surface is not affected by water, slush, snow, or ice.
• Damp Runway, ICAO, The surface shows a change of color due to moisture
• Runway Friction Information

227
Factors affecting takeoff performance
 Weight
 Atmospheric conditions
 Load distribution
 Design factors
 Runway
 Landing gear

228
 4.4 LANDING PERFORMANCE
 Landing is essentially the reverse of takeoff. The takeoff
distance equation requires only slight modifications to
be applicable to landing:

The primary consideration in landing is dissipation of the

airplane’s kinetic energy.
Any factor affecting velocity must be considered when
trying to reduce the landing distance. Final approach is
flown at the lowest velocity feasible. Notice that in the
landing distance equation the net accelerating forces are
reversed. Drag and rolling friction are now desirable and of
229
course, thrust is not.
 An increase in weight will increase landing distance since
a greater airspeed is required to support the airplane.
 An increase in elevation, temperature or humidity will
increase landing distance since the reduced density results
in a higher landing velocity.
 High lift devices decrease landing distance because they
reduce the ground speed during the landing. A headwind
reduces landing distance because it reduces ground speed.
 A tailwind increases landing distance since it increases
ground speed. Charts for predicting takeoff and landing
distance are located in manuals.

230
 The net decelerating force can be increased by use
of three different techniques. Aerodynamic braking
is accomplished by increasing the parasite drag on
the airplane by holding a constant pitch attitude
after touchdown and exposing more of the
airplane’s surface to the relative wind. This method
of braking helps to reduce wear on the brakes. Drag
chutes, spoilers, and speed brakes are also
considered aerodynamic braking. Aerodynamic
braking is used at the beginning of the landing roll.
Aerodynamic breaking can also be used in flight to
reduce airspeed or increase descent rates when
necessary. 231
 Mechanical braking (also called frictional or wheel
braking) is effective only after enough weight is
transferred to the wheels and the airplane has slowed
sufficiently.
 A common procedure is to raise flaps or use spoilers to
decrease lift and transfer the airplane’s weight to the
wheels when transitioning from aerodynamic to
mechanical braking. Mechanical braking is used toward
the end of the landing roll.
 Some airplanes use reverse thrust or reverse pitch
propellers (called beta) to shorten the landing roll.
Thrust is usually negligible after touchdown, but in the
case of reverse thrust or “beta” equipped airplanes,
232
thrust increases the net decelerating force.
 The landing is performed in two phases:
 Approach over a hypothetical obstacle to touchdown
 Ground run to a full stop
 Before reaching the obstacle the aircraft makes an
approach along the axis of the runway with a glide
angle between -2.5 and -3.5 degrees.
 The approach speed is V2, i.e. 1.2Vstall.

233
Landing Diagram

234
 Approach
 The aircraft is approaching the runway with a
descent angle γ.
 If the height of the hypothetical object is hob and
the rotation height is hr, then the approach distance
x3 is given by

 And the approach time is

235
 Rotation
Rotation is a circular arc with radius R.
As in the take-off case, we have

Where n is the load factor. (n=L/W)

The distance traveled during rotation is

And the time taken is

236
 Ground Run
 Once the aircraft has touched down the airspeed
drops from to 0.
 The distance of the ground run can be approximated
by

Where is the mean deceleration:

237
 Estimation of Landing Distances

Factors affecting Landing distance

 Weight
Atmospheric condition etc…
Landing gear design
Landing types (Normal landing, Abnormal landing)

238
 To Sum up Airplane Performance,
…………
 Suppose Your Fighter Has Certain Set of Requirements:

 Level Flight at a Maximum Speed of Mach 2 at 30,000 feet

altitude.
 Range (1500 Nautical Mile Radius with 45 Minutes of Fuel
Reserve)
 Takeoff (6000 foot Runway with a 50 foot obstacle at the end)
 Landing (6000 foot Runway)

The Question is
Will your fighter do the job?

239
 CHAPTER 7
TURNING FLIGHT
(AIRCRAFT MANOEUVRE
PERFORMANCE)

240
 INTRODUCTION
 Unlike an automobile or other ground supported
vehicles, an aircraft can rotate about three axes.
 It can pitch up and down, yaw left or right, and
roll to the left or the right.
 Because of this freedom of movement, the airplane
can perform many maneuvers.
 However, all these maneuvers consist of turns,
either horizontal or vertical, or a combination of the
two.
 This lesson discusses turns and the limits imposed
on them. 241
The Three Axes of an airplane (Recalled)

242
 MANEUVERING FORCES
 Turning flight is described as changing the direction
of the airplane’s flight path by reorienting the lift
vector in the desired direction. During a turn, the
lift vector is divided into two components, a
horizontal component (LH) and a vertical
component (LV) (Figure).

243
Figure: Turning Flight
244
 The horizontal component of lift, called centripetal
force, accelerates the airplane toward the inside of the
turn.
 In straight and level flight (constant altitude, constant
direction) total lift is equal to weight, but in a turn, only
the vertical component of the lift vector opposes
weight.
 If the pilot does not increase the total lift vector, the
airplane will lose altitude because weight will be
greater than LV.
 The increased lift is normally obtained by increasing
the angle of attack, i.e. pulling back on the stick. As the
stick moves aft, G-forces build up. 245
 Increasing the lift produced by the wings increases
the load on the airplane. Load factor (n) is the ratio
of total lift to the airplane’s weight. It is sometimes
called Gs since it is the number of times the earth’s
gravitational pull felt by the pilot. For example, a
3,000 pound airplane in a 60º angle of bank turn
must produce 3,000 pounds of vertical lift to
maintain altitude.
 Therefore, the wings must produce 6,000 pounds of
total lift so the airplane experiences a load on its
wings that is twice the force due to gravity, or 2 Gs.
 One “G” is what we experience just sitting or
walking. 246
 In maneuvering flight, the amount of lift produced by an
airplane is equal to its weight (W) multiplied by its load
factor (n). By substituting W · n into the lift equation and
solving for V, we can derive an equation for stall speed
during maneuvering flight.
 This is called accelerated stall speed because it represents
the stall speed at velocities greater than minimum straight
and level stall speed, and load factors greater than one. Phi
(φ) is the angle of bank associated with the load factor (n).

247
 Maneuvering the airplane will significantly affect stall
speed. Stall speed increases when we induce a load factor
greater than one (1) on the airplane.
 The figure is a generic chart that can be used for any fixed
wing aircraft and assumes a constant altitude turn.

248
Figure . Increase in stall speed and load factor.
 It lists the load factors and percent increase in stall
speed for varying angles of bank. Notice that above
45º angle of bank the increase in load factor and
stall speed is rapid.
 This emphasizes the need to avoid steep turns at low
airspeeds.
 An airplane in a 60º angle of bank experiences 2 Gs,
but has an accelerated stall speed that is 40% greater
than wings level stall speed.

249
Normal, slipping, and skidding turns
 In a correctly executed turn (Normal), the
horizontal component of lift must be exactly equal
and opposite to the centrifugal force.
 As the airspeed is increased in a constant-rate level
turn, the radius of the turn increases.
 This increase in the radius of turn causes an
increase in the centrifugal force, which must be
balanced by an increase in the horizontal
component of lift, which can only be increased by
increasing the angle of bank.
250
 In a slipping turn, the aircraft is not turning
at the rate appropriate to the bank being
used, since the aircraft is yawed toward the
outside of the turning flight path. The aircraft
is banked too much for the ROT, so the
horizontal lift component is greater than the
centrifugal force.
 Equilibrium between the horizontal lift
component and centrifugal force is
reestablished by either decreasing the bank,
increasing the ROT, or a combination of the
two changes. 251
 A skidding turn results from an excess of centrifugal
force over the horizontal lift component, pulling the
aircraft toward the outside of the turn.
 The ROT is too great for the angle of bank.
 Correction of a skidding turn thus involves a reduction in
the ROT, an increase in bank, or a combination of the two
changes.

252
 TURN PERFORMANCE
 Turn performance is measured using two different
parameters, turn rate and turn radius.
 Turn rate (ω) is the rate of heading change,
measured in degrees per second.
 Turn radius (r) is a measure of the radius of the
circle the flight path scribes.
 Turn performance in a level coordinated turn is
controlled only by airspeed and angle of bank.
 Weight, altitude, load factor, stalling angle of attack,
engine performance, and wing loading may limit
either the airspeed or angle of bank . 253
 This would limit maximum turn rate or minimum
turn radius, however, the actual performance would
still be determined using only airspeed and angle of
bank.
 The formulas for determining the turn rate and turn
radius for an airplane in coordinated flight are:

where ω = turn rate, r = turn radius, V = velocity, φ = angle of bank and

g = gravity. 254
 The pull up maneuver
 Consider another case of turning flight, where an
airplane initially in straight level flight (where L =
W) suddenly experiences an increase in lift.
 Since L >W, the airplane will begin to tum upward,
as sketched in Figure.
 For this pull-up maneuver, the flight path becomes
curved in the vertical plane, with a tum rate w =
d/dt.From the force diagram in Figure , the
resultant force F,. Is vertical and is given by

255
  From Newton's second law

 Combining these two Eqs. and

solving for R,

256
 The pull down maneuver
 A related case is the pull down maneuver, illustrated in
Figure below. Here, an airplane is initially level flight
suddenly rolls to an inverted position, such that both L
and W are pointing downward.
 The airplane will begin to tum
downward in a circular flight path
with a turn radius R and turn rate w =
d/dt.By an analysis similar to those
above, the following results are
easily obtained:

257
Prove this to yourself.
 Considerations of turn radius and turn rate are particularly
important to military fighter aircraft; everything else being
equal, those airplanes with the smallest R and largest w will
have definite advantages in air combat.
 High-performance fighter aircraft are designed to operate
at high load factors, typically from 3 to 10. When n is
large, then n + 1 = n and n - 1 = n; for such cases, the
above Eqs. reduce to

258
 Working further with these equations. Since

By Substituting these Eqs. into the equations of R & w

 Note that in the last Eqs. the factor W / S appears. This factor occurs
frequently in airplane performance analyses and is labeled as

259
 From the Equations clearly show that airplanes with
lower wing loadings will have smaller turn radii and
larger turn rates, everything else being equal.
 However, the design wing loading of an airplane is
usually determined by factors other than maneuvering,
such as payload, range, and maximum velocity. As a
result, wing loadings for light, general aviation aircraft
are relatively low, but those for high-performance
military aircraft are relatively large. Wing loadings for
some typical airplanes are listed below.

260
 V-N / V-G DIAGRAM
 The V-n diagram or V-G diagram is a graph that summarizes
an airplane’s structural and aerodynamic limitation.
 The horizontal axis is indicated airspeed, since this is what we
see in the cockpit. The vertical axis of the graph is load factor,
or Gs.
 The V-n diagram represents the maneuvering envelope of the
airplane for a particular weight, altitude, and configuration.
 Each aircraft has its own Vg diagram which is valid at a
certain weight and altitude.
 Accelerated stall lines, or lines of maximum lift, represent
the maximum load factor that an airplane can produce based
on airspeed. The accelerated stall lines are determined by
CLmax AOA.
261
 They are the curving lines on the left side of the V-n
diagram (Figure ). If one tries to maintain a constant
airspeed and increase lift beyond the accelerated stall lines,
the airplane will stall because we have exceeded the stalling
angle of attack.
 As airspeed increases, more lift can be produced without
exceeding the stalling angle of attack.

Figure: V-n Diagram

262
 The V-n diagram for a particular aircraft in the Figure
below is capable of developing no more than +1 G at 62
mph, the wing level stall speed of the aircraft.
 Since the maximum load factor varies with the square of
the airspeed, the maximum positive lift capability of this
aircraft is 2 G at 92 mph, 3 G at 112 mph, 4.4 G at 137
mph, and so forth.
 Any load factor above this line is unavailable
aerodynamically (i.e., the aircraft cannot fly above the line
of maximum lift capability because it stalls).
 The same situation exists for negative lift flight with the
exception that the speed necessary to produce a given
negative load factor is higher than that to produce the same
positive load factor. 263
 Figure. Typical Vg diagram

 Reading Assignment: Introduction to Flight (3rd edition) by John

D. Anderson Page 330 to 333. 264
 CHAPTER 8
STABILITY & CONTROL

265
 Airplane performance, as discussed in Chap. 7, is
governed by forces (along and perpendicular to the
flight path), with the translational motion of the
airplane as a response to these forces.
 In contrast, airplane stability and control, discussed
in the present chapter, are governed by moments
about the center of gravity, with the rotational
motion of the airplane as a response to these
moments.
 Therefore, moments and rotational motion are the
main focus of this chapter. 266
 Consider an airplane in flight, as sketched in Figure.
The center of gravity (the point through which the
weight of the complete airplane effectively acts) is
denoted as cg. The xyz orthogonal axis system is fixed
relative to the airplane; the x axis is along the fuselage,
the y axis is along the wingspan perpendicular to the x
axis, and the z axis is directed downward,
perpendicular to the xy plane.
 The origin is at the center of gravity.
 The translational motion of the airplane is given by the
velocity components U, V, and W along the x, y, and z
directions, respectively. (Note that the resultant free
stream velocity V is the vector sum of U, V, and W.)
00
267
 The rotational motion is given by the angular velocity components P,
Q, and R about the x, y, z axes, respectively. These rotational
velocities are due to the moments L', M, and N about the x, y, and z
axes, respectively.
 (The prime is put over the
symbol "L" so that the reader
avoids confusing it with lift.)
 Rotational motion about the
x axis is called roll; L' and P
are the rolling moment and
veloeity, respectively.
 Rotational motion about the
y axis is called pitch; M and
Q are the pitching moment
and velocity, respectively.
 Rotational motion about the
z axis is called yaw; N and R
are the yawing moment and
Figure: Definition of the airplane's axes along with the
translational and rotational motion along and about
velocity, respectively.268
these axes.
 There are three basic controls on an airplane-the
ailerons, elevator, and rudder-which are designed to
change and control the moments about the x, y, and
z axes.
 These control surfaces are shown in Figure; they
are flap like surfaces that can be deflected back and
forth at the command of the pilot.

269
 DEFINITION OF STABILITY AND CONTROL
 There are two types of stability: static and dynamic.
They can be visualized as follows.
A. Static Stability
 Consider a marble on a curved surface, such as a bowl. Imagine that
the bowl is upright and the marble is resting inside, as shown in
Figure “a”.
 The marble is stationary; it is in a state of equilibrium, which means
that the moments acting on the marble are zero.
 If the marble is now disturbed
(moved to one side, as shown by the
dotted circle in Figure “a”) and then
released, it will roll back toward the
bottom of the bowl, i.e., toward its
original equilibrium position. Such a
270
system is statically stable.
 In general, we can state that If the forces and moments on the body
caused by a disturbance tend initially to return the body toward its
equilibrium position, the body is statically stable. The body has
positive static stability.
 Now, imagine the bowl is upside-down, with the marble at the crest,
as shown in Figure “b”. If the marble is placed precisely at the crest,
the moments will be zero and the marble will be in equilibrium.
 However, if the marble is now disturbed (as shown by the dotted
circle in Figure “b”), it will tend to roll down the side, away from its
equilibrium position. Such a system is statically unstable.
 In general, we can state that If the
forces and moments are such that the
body continues to move away from its
equilibrium position after being
disturbed, the body is statically
unstable. The body has negative static
stability. 271
 Finally, imagine the marble on a flat horizontal
surface, as shown in Figure “c”. Its moments are
zero; it is in equilibrium.
 If the marble is now disturbed to another location,
the moments will still be zero, and it will still be in
equilibrium.  Such a system is
neutrally stable.
 This situation is rare in
flight vehicles, and we
will not be concerned
with it here.
272
B. Dynamic Stability
 Dynamic stability deals with the time history of the vehicle's
motion after it initially responds to its static stability.
 For example, consider an airplane flying at an angle of
attacksuch that its moments about the center of gravity are
zero.
 The airplane is therefore in equilibrium at ; in this situation,
it is trimmed, and is called the trim angle of attack.

273
Figure: Disturbance from the equilibrium angle of attack.
 Now assume that the airplane is disturbed (say, by encountering a
wind gust) to a new angle of attack a as shown in Figure above.
 The airplane has been pitched through a displacement .
 Now, let us observe the subsequent pitching motion after the airplane
has been disturbed by the gust. We can describe this motion by
plotting the instantaneous displacement vs. time, as shown in Figure.

Figure: Examples of dynamic stability. (a) Aperiodic; (b) Damped

oscillations.
 Here is given as a function of time t. At t = 0, the displacement
is equal to that produced by the gust.
 Ifthe airplane is statically stable, it will initially tend to move
back toward its equilibrium position, that is, will initially 274
decrease.
 Over a lapse of time, the vehicle may monotonically "home-
in" to its equilibrium position, as shown in Figure above “a”.
 Such motion is called aperiodic. Alternately, it may first
overshoot the equilibrium position and approach after a series
of oscillations with decreasing amplitude, as shown in Figure
“b”. Such motion is described as damped oscillations.
 In both situations, Figures “a” and “b”, the airplane eventually
returns to its equilibrium position after some interval of time.
These two situations are examples of dynamic stability in an
airplane.
 Thus, we can state that

A body is dynamically stable if, out of its own accord, it eventually

returns to and remains at its equilibrium position over a period of time.
275
On the other hand, after initially responding to its static
stability, the airplane may oscillate with increasing
amplitude, as shown in Figure below.
Here, the equilibrium position is never maintained for any
period of time; the airplane in this case is dynamically
unstable (even though it is statically stable).
Also, it is theoretically possible for the airplane to pitch
back and forth with constant amplitude oscillations. This is
an example of a dynamically neutral body; such a case is of
little practical interest here.  It is important to observe from the
above examples that a dynamically
stable airplane must always be
statically stable. On the other hand,
static stability is not sufficient to ensure
dynamic stability.
276
Fig.: An example of dynamic instability.
C. Control
 Remember the conventional control surfaces (elevators,
ailerons, and rudder) on an airplane were discussed in
previous course.
 Their function is usually:
(1). to change the airplane from one equilibrium position to
another and
(2). to produce non equilibrium accelerated motions such as
maneuvers.
 The study of the deflections of the ailerons, elevators, and rudder
necessary to make the airplane do what we want and of the
amount of force that must be exerted by the pilot (or the
hydraulic boost system) to deflect these controls is part of a
discipline called "airplane control," have been discussed.
 This discussion assumes that you have clear understanding 277 of
D. The Partial Derivative
 A mathematical definition, namely, that of the partial
derivative, will be useful in the equations developed later.
 Consider a function, say f(x), of a single variable x. The
derivative of f(x) is defined from elementary calculus as

 Physically, this limit represents the instantaneous rate of change of f(x)

with respect to x.
 Now consider a function which depends on more than one variable,
say, for example, the function g(x, y, z), which depends on the three
independent variables x, y, and z. Let x vary while y and z are held
constant. Then, the instantaneous rate of change of g with respect to x
is given by
 Here, is the partial
derivative of g with 278
respect
to x.
Example

279
 MOMENTS ON THE AIRPLANE
 A study of stability and control is focused on moments: moments on
the airplane and moments on the control surfaces.
 Recall that the pressure and shear stress distributions over a wing
produce a pitching moment. This moment can be taken about any
arbitrary point (the leading edge, the trailing edge, the quarter chord,
etc.).
 However, there exists a particular point about which the moments
are independent of angle of attack. This point is defined as the
aerodynamic center for the wing.
 The moment and its coefficient about the aerodynamic center are
denoted by
respectively, where

280
 Consider the complete airplane, as sketched in Figure.
 Here, we are most concerned with the pitching moment
about the center of gravity of the airplane, ·

 Clearly, by examination of the Figure , is created by

(1) L, D, and of the wing, (2) lift of the tail,
(3) thrust, and (4) aerodynamic forces and moments on other
parts of the airplane, such as the fuselage and engine nacelles.
 (Note that weight does not contribute, since it acts through the center
281
of gravity.)
 The purpose of the above Figure is simply to illustrate
the important conclusion that a moment does exist about
the center of gravity of an airplane, and it is this
moment which is fundamental to the stability and
control of the airplane.
 The moment coefficient about the center of gravity is
defined as

Combining the above concept with the above discussions,

we find an airplane is in equilibrium (in pitch) when the
moment about the center of gravity is zero; i.e., when = = 0,
the airplane is said to be trimmed. 282
 ABSOLUTE ANGLE OF ATTACK
 Consider a wing at an angle of attack such that lift is
zero; i.e., the wing is at the zero-lift angle of attack
as shown in Figure “a”.

 With the wing in this orientation, draw a line

through the trailing edge parallel to the relative wind
.
 This line is defined as the zero-lift line for the airfoil.
It is a fixed line; visualize it frozen into283 the
 As discussed in Chap. 3,conventional cambered airfoils
have slightly negative zero-lift angles; therefore the
zero-lift line lies slightly above the chord line, as shown
(with overemphasis) in Figure “a”.
 Now consider the wing pitched to the geometric angle
of attack such that lift is generated, as shown in Figure
“b”.

284
 In the same configuration, Figure “b” demonstrates
that the angle between the zero-lift line and the
relative wind is equal to the sum of plus the
absolute value of · This angle is defined as the
absolute angle of attack .

Figure: Lift coefficient vs. (a) geometric angle of attack and (b) absolute angle of attack.
285
 Longitudinal Static Stability

 Consider a rigid airplane with fixed controls, e.g., the elevator in

some fixed position.
 Assume the airplane has been tested in a wind tunnel or free flight
and that its variation of with angle of attack has been measured.
 This variation is illustrated in Figure, where is sketched versus .
 For many conventional airplanes,
the curve is nearly linear, as shown
in the Figure.
 The value of at zero lift (where = 0)
is denoted by ·
 The value of where =0is denoted by
; as stated before, this is the
equilibrium, or trim, angle of attack.
Fig.: Moment coefficient curve with a 286
negative slope.
 Consider the airplane in steady, equilibrium flight at
its trim angle of attack as shown in Figure “a”.
 Suddenly, the airplane is disturbed by hitting a wind
gust, and the angle of attack is momentarily
changed.

Figure: Illustration of static stability: (a) Equilibrium position (trimmed).287

 There are two possibilities: an increase or a decrease in .
 If the airplane is pitched upward, as shown in Figure “b”,
then .
 From Figure of: “Moment coefficient curve with a negative
slope”, if , the moment about the center of gravity is negative.

Figure: Illustration of static stability: ( b) Pitched upward by disturbance. ( c) Pitched

downward by disturbance.
 In both b and c, the airplane has the initial tendency to return to its equilibrium
288
position.
 On the other hand, if the plane is pitched downward
by the gust, as shown in Figure “c”, then .
 From Figure of “Moment coefficient curve with a
negative slope”, the resulting moment about the center
of gravity will be positive (clockwise) and will tend
to pitch the nose upward.
 Thus, again we have the situation where the airplane
will initially tend to move back toward its
equilibrium position after being disturbed.
 From the discussion of above, this is precisely the
definition of static stability.
289
 Therefore, we conclude that an airplane which has a
versus variation like that shown in Figure is statically
stable.

 Note from Figure that is positive and that the slope of the curve, , is
negative.
290
 Consider now a different airplane, with a measured
variation as shown in Figure below.
 Imagine the airplane is flying at its trim angle of
attack as shown in Figure “a”.

Figure: Moment coefficient curve with a positive slope.

291
Figure: Illustration of static instability. (a) Equilibrium position (trimmed). (b) Pitched
upward by disturbance. (c) Pitched downward by disturbance.
In both b and c, the airplane has the initial tendency to diverge farther away292from its
equilibrium position.
 If it is disturbed by a gust, pitching the nose
upward, as shown in Figure “b”, then if .
 From the Graph this results in a positive
(clockwise) moment, which tends to pitch the nose
even further away from its equilibrium position.
 Similarly, if the gust pitches the nose downward
(Figure ‘c’), a negative (counterclockwise) moment
results, which also tends to pitch the nose further
away from its equilibrium position.

293
 Therefore, because the airplane always tends to diverge
from equilibrium when disturbed, it is statically unstable.

 Note from Figure that is negative and that the slope of the
curve, ,is positive for this airplane.
294
 For both airplanes, Figures (graphs) show a positive
value of .
 Recall from that an airplane moves through a range of
angle of attack as it flies through its velocity range from
(where is the largest) to (where is the smallest). [Further
Explanation, Introduction to Flight Page 265 to 267]
 The value of must fall within this flight range of angle of
attack, or else the airplane cannot be trimmed for steady
flight.
 (Remember that we are assuming a fixed elevator
position: we are discussing "stick-fixed" stability.)
 When does fall within this range, the airplane is
longitudinally balanced. 295
 From the above considerations, we conclude the
following.
 The necessary criteria for longitudinal balance and
static stability are:
1. must be positive.
2. must be negative.
That is, the curve must look like Figure below.

296
 Now, assume that the wing is at zero lift. In this case,
the only moment on the wing is a pure couple, as
explained; hence, at zero lift the moment about one
point is equal to the moment about any other point. In
particular,
Eq. (1)

On the other hand, examination of Figure the graph of static

stability, we see that is by definition, the moment coefficient
about the center of gravity at zero lift (when = 0). Hence,
from Eq. (1)
Eq. (2)
297
Figure: (a) Conventional wing-tail combination. The tail is set at such
an angle as to produce negative lift, thus providing a positive
(b) Canard wing-tail combination. The tail is set at such an angle as to
produce positive lift, thus providing a positive · 298
 Equation (2) demonstrates that, for a wing with
positive camber ( negative) is also negative. Hence,
such a wing by itself is unbalanced.
 To rectify this situation, a horizontal tail must be
added to the airplane, as shown in Figures ‘a’ and ‘b’.
 If the tail is mounted behind the wing, as shown in
Figure ‘a’, and if it is inclined downward to produce
a negative tail lift as shown, then a clockwise
moment about the center of gravity will be created.
 If this clockwise moment is strong enough, it will
overcome the negative and for the wing-tail
combination will become positive. The airplane will
then be balanced. 299
 CONTRIBUTION OF THE WING TO

 The calculation of moments about the center of gravity of

the airplane, is critical to a study of longitudinal static
stability.
 Therefore, we now proceed to consider individually the
contributions of the wing, fuselage, and tail to moments
about the center of gravity of the airplane, in the end
combining them to obtain the total ·
 Here, the zero-lift line is drawn horizontally for convenience; hence,
the relative wind is inclined at the angle with respect to the zero-lift
line, where is the absolute angle of attack of the wing.
 Let c denote the mean zero-lift chord of the wing (the chord
measured along the zero-lift line).
 The difference between the zero-lift chord and the geometric300chord
The center of gravity for the airplane is located a
distance hcbehind the leading edge, and zcabove the
zero-lift line, as shown.
Hence, h and z are coordinates of the center of
gravity in fractions of chord length.
The aerodynamic center is a distance h ac c from
the leading edge.
The moment of the wing about the aerodynamic
center ofthe wing is denoted by , and the wing lift
and drag are and , respectively, as shown. As
usual,ind are perpendicular and parallel,
respectively, to the relative wind.
301
 Consider the forces and moments on the wing only,
as shown in Figure.

302
Airfoil nomenclature and geometry
 Now we wish to take moments about the center of
gravity with pitch-up moments positive as usual.
Clearly, from Figure, Lw, Dw, and . all contribute to
moments about the center of gravity.
 Then, referring to Figure, we find the moments about
the center of gravity of the airplane due to the wing are

Eq. (3)

 For the normal-flight range of a conventional airplane, is small;

hence, the approximation is made that 1 and (where is in radians).
Then Eq. (3) becomes
Eq. (4)
303
 Dividing Eq. (4) by and recalling that we obtain the
moment coefficient about the center of gravity as

Eq. (5)

For most airplanes, the center of gravity is located close to the

zero-lift line; hence z is usually small ( z0) and will be
neglected. Furthermore, (in radians) is usually much less than
unity, and is usually less than ; hence, the product is small in
comparison to · With these assumptions, Eq. (5) simplifies to:

Eq. (6)
304
 Referring to Figure below (, we find , where is the lift slope of the
wing. Thus, (Eq. (6) can be written as:

Eq. (7)

 Equations (6) and (7) give the contribution of

the wing to moments about the center of
gravity of the airplane, subject of course to the
above assumptions.
 Closely examine Eqs. (6) and (7) along with Figure “Airfoil
nomenclature and geometry” . On a physical basis, they state that
the wing's contribution to is essentially due to two factors:
1. The moment about the aerodynamic center, , and
2. the lift acting through the moment arm (h - )c.
305
 Now consider the fuselage and wing joined together: a wing-body
combination.
 The airflow about this wing-body combination is different from that over the
wing and body separately; aerodynamic interference occurs where the flow
over the wing affects the fuselage flow, and vice versa.
 Due to this interference, the moment due to the wing-body combination is
not simply the sum of the separate wing and fuselage moments. Similarly, the
lift and drag of the wing-body combination are affected by aerodynamic
interference.
 Let and be the lift coefficient and moment coefficient about the aerodynamic
center, respectively, for the wing-body combination. Analogous to Eqs. (6)
and (7) for the wing only, the contribution of the wing-body combination to is
Eqs. (8)

Eqs. (9) 306

 Where and are the slope of the lift curve and
awb

absolute angle of attack, respectively, for the wing-

body combination.
 In general, adding a fuselage to a wing shifts the
aerodynamic center forward, increases the lift curve
slope, and contributes a negative increment to the
moment about the aerodynamic center.

307
Example 1
For a given wing-body combination, the aerodynamic center lies 0.05
chord length ahead of the center of gravity. The moment coefficient
about the aerodynamic center is -0.016. If the lift coefficient is 0.45,
calculate the moment coefficient about the center of gravity.
SOLUTION
From Eq. (8),
where = 0.05
=0.45
=-0.016

=-0.016+0.45*0.05
= 0.0065
308
Example 2
A wing-body model is tested in a subsonic wind tunnel. The lift is found to be zero
at a geometric angle of attack = -1.5 °. At = 5 °, the lift coefficient is measured as
0.52. Also, at = 1.0 ° and 7.88 °, the moment coefficients about the center of
gravity are measured as - 0.01 and 0.05, respectively. The center of gravity is
located at 0.35c. Calculate the location of the aerodynamic center and the value of ·
SOLUTION:
First, calculate the lift slope:
From Equ.10:
Evaluated at = 1.0 ° [remember that is the geometric angle of attack,
whereas in Eq. (10) is the absolute angle of attack]:
-0.01 = )
Then evaluate it at = 7.88 °:
0.05= )
The above two equations have two unknowns, and · They can be solved
simultaneously.

309
Subtracting the second equation from the first, we get
-0.06 = 0-0.55)
)=
• The value of h is given: h = 0.35. Thus
= 0.35-0.11 =0.24

In turn
-0.01 = +0.08(1-1.5)(0.11)

= -0.032

310
Example 3:
For a given wing-body combination, the aerodynamic
center lies 0.03 chord length ahead of the center of
gravity. The moment coefficient about the center of
gravity is 0.0050, and the lift coefficient is 0.50. Calculate
the moment coefficient about the aerodynamic center.
Solution


= 0.005-0.05(0.03)
= -0.01
311
CONTRIBUTION OF THE TAIL TO

312
 CHAPTER 9
Introduction to Helicopter Aerodynamics

313
 1. Introduction
 Helicopter is an aircraft than can take-off and land
vertically.
 Helicopters have been around for centuries, but it was
Russian aircraft pioneer Igor Sikorsky who designed,
built and in 1939 flew the first fully controllable single
rotor / tail rotor helicopter - the fundamental concept
that shaped all future helicopters.
 Helicopters truly are amazing flying machines, and
how helicopters fly is what makes them such versatile
machines, being perfectly suited to roles ranging from
military use to fire fighting and search and rescue.
314
315
 Rotor Configurations
Conventional Type
The most common configuration is the combination of one main rotor
and one tail rotor.
The tail rotor will compensate the torque which is produced by the
main rotor.
The tail rotor is also responsible for the control of the helicopter along
the vertical axis , during hover flight.

316
Tandem Rotor Type
 The type of rotor arrangement referred to as a tandem rotor is
mainly used with big helicopters.
 Because of the opposite rotation of the rotors, the torque of each
single rotor will be neutralized. The construction of the control
system is much more complicated, compared to a helicopter with
a tail rotor.
 The control along the vertical axis during hover flight is done by
bending the rotor discs against each other.

317
Coaxial Rotor Type
 The other configuration is the coaxial rotor. One rotor is on top of the
other and turn in opposite directions. The control along the vertical
axe occurs as a result of different lifts of the two rotor discs.
 Depending on which rotor produces more lift, the helicopter will turn
to the left or right, because of the torque.
 For these helicopters it is not possible to reach a high cruising speed,
because the drag is too large. Only after the development of the rigid
rotor, has it been possible to build the two rotors closer together and
reduce the drag considerably.
 This configuration has been mainly chosen by Russian Kamov
helicopters.

318
 2. AERODYNAMIC FORCES OF A HELICOPTER
 One of the differences between a helicopter and a fixed-wing
aircraft is the main source of lift.
 The fixed-wing aircraft derives its lift from a fixed airfoil surface
while the helicopter derives lift from a rotating airfoil called the
rotor.
 Weight and drag act on a helicopter as they do on all aircraft.
 However, lift and thrust for a helicopter are obtained from the
main rotor.
 In a very basic sense, the helicopter's main rotor does what
wings and a propeller do for an airplane.
 Moreover, by tilting the main rotor, the pilot can make the
helicopter fly to either side or to the rear.
319
Once a helicopter leaves the ground, it is acted upon by four aerodynamic
forces; thrust, drag, lift and weight.
Understanding how these forces work and knowing how to control them with
the use of power and flight controls are essential to flight.

Fig: Four forces acting on a helicopter in forward flight. 320

 Modes of Helicopter Flight
I. HOVERING FLIGHT
 A helicopter hovers when it maintains a constant position at a
selected point in the air, usually a few feet above the ground.
To hover, a helicopter main rotor must supply
lift equal to the total weight of the helicopter,
including crew; fuel; passengers and cargo, if
carried; and armament, if armed.
The necessary lift is created by rotating the
blades at high velocity and increasing the
blade angle of attack.
During hovering flight, a helicopter maintains
a constant position over a selected point,
usually a few feet above the ground.
Fig. Forces during Hovering
321
 PENDULAR ACTION
Since the fuselage of the helicopter, with a single main rotor, is suspended
from a single point and has considerable mass, it is free to oscillate either
longitudinally or laterally in the same way as a pendulum.
This pendulum action can be exaggerated by over controlling; therefore,
control movements should be smooth and not exaggerated

Because the helicopter’s body has mass and is suspended from a single point
322
(the rotor mast head), it tends to act much like a pendulum.
 GROUND EFFECT
 When hovering near the ground, a phenomenon known as ground effect takes place. [Figure]
 This effect usually occurs less than one rotor diameter above the surface. As the induced airflow through
the rotor disc is reduced by the surface friction, the lift vector increases.
 This allows a lower rotor blade angle for the same amount of lift, which reduces induced drag.
 Ground effect also restricts the generation of blade tip vortices due to the downward and outward airflow
making a larger portion of the blade produce lift.

Figure: Air circulation patterns change when hovering out of ground effect (OGE) and when
hovering in ground effect (IGE).
323
 II. VERTICAL FLIGHT
 Hovering is actually an element of vertical flight. Increasing the
angle of attack of the rotor blades (pitch) while their velocity
remains constant generates additional vertical lift and thrust and
the helicopter ascends.
 Decreasing the pitch causes the helicopter to descend. In a no
wind condition when lift and thrust are less than weight and drag,
Ifthe helicopter
lift and descends
thrust are vertically.
greater than weight and drag,
the helicopter ascends vertically. [Figure]

324
 III. Forward Flight
 In steady forward flight, with no change in airspeed or vertical speed, the four
forces of lift, thrust, drag, and weight must be in balance.
 Once the tip-path plane is tilted forward, the total lift-thrust force is also tilted
forward. This resultant lift-thrust force can be resolved into two components
—lift acting vertically upward and thrust acting horizontally in the direction of
flight.
 In addition to lift and thrust, there is weight
(the downward acting force) and drag (the
force opposing the motion of an airfoil
through the air). [Figure]
 You initiate this by forward movement of the
cyclic control.

325
 IV. SIDEWARD FLIGHT
 In sideward flight, the tip-path plane is tilted in the direction that
flight is desired.
 This tilts the total lift-thrust vector sideward. In this case, the
vertical or lift component is still straight up and weight straight
down, but the horizontal or thrust component now acts sideward
with drag acting to the opposite side. [Figure]
Figure: Forces acting on the helicopter during
sideward flight.

326
 V. REARWARD FLIGHT
 For rearward flight, the tip-path plane is tilted rearward,
which, in turn, tilts the lift-thrust vector rear- ward. Drag
now acts forward with the lift component straight up and
weight straight down. [Figure]

Figure: Forces acting on the helicopter during

rearward flight.

327
 VI. TURNING FLIGHT
 In forward flight, the rotor disc is tilted forward, which also tilts the total lift-thrust
force of the rotor disc forward.
 When the helicopter is banked, the rotor disc is tilted sideward resulting in lift
being separated into two components.
Lift acting upward and opposing weight
is called the vertical component of lift. Lift
acting horizontally and opposing inertia
(centrifugal force) is the horizontal
component of lift (centripetal force). [Figure
].

Figure: The horizontal component of lift

accelerates the helicopter toward the center of
the turn.

328
 TURNING FLIGHT …………………………

 As the angle of bank increases, the total lift force is tilted more
toward the horizontal, thus causing the rate of turn to increase
because more lift is acting horizontally
 Since the resultant lifting force acts more horizontally, the effect
of lift acting vertically is deceased.
 To compensate for this decreased vertical lift, the angle of
attack of the rotor blades must be increased in order to
maintain altitude.
 The steeper the angle of bank, the greater the angle of attack
of the rotor blades required to maintain altitude.
 Thus, with an increase in bank and a greater angle of attack, 329
330
331
Assumptions

332
 The rotor is considered as an ‘actuator disk’, across which there is a
sudden increase of pressure, uniformly spread.
 In hover, the column of air passing through the disk is a clearly
defined streamtube above and below the disk: outside this streamtube,
the air is undisturbed.
 This situation is illustrated in the figure below.
 AS the air is sucked into the disk from above, the pressure falls. An
increase of pressure P occurs at the disc, after which the pressure
falls again in the outflow, eventually arriving back at the initial or
atmospheric level
Velocity in the streamtube increases from zero at ‘upstream infinity’ to
a value vi @ the disc and continues to increase as pressure falls in the
outflow, reaching a value at ‘downstream infinity’.
 Continuity of mass flow in the streamtube requires that the
velocity is continuous through the disk. 333
 V=0

+ve

-ve

334
Energy conservation, in the form of Bernoulli’s equation
can be applied separately to the flows before and after the disc.
The using the assumption of incompressible flow, we have
in the inflow:

335
 (Eq. 1)

(Eq. 2)

(Eq. 3)

336
 1
2

337
 Autorotation
 Autorotation is the condition of flight where the rotor is being driven by
aerodynamic forces derived from an induced upwards airflow through the rotor
as a result of the aircraft descending with no power applied to the rotor shaft.
 In normal, powered flight, air is drawn into the main rotor system from above
and exhausted downward, but during autorotation, air moves up into the rotor
system from below as the helicopter descends.
 Autorotation is permitted mechanically by a freewheeling unit, which is a
special clutch mechanism that allows the main rotor to continue turning even if
the engine is not running.
 If the engine fails, the freewheeling unit automatically disengages the engine
from the main rotor allowing the main rotor to rotate freely.
 It is the means by which a helicopter can be landed safely in the event of an
engine failure; consequently, all helicopters must demonstrate this capability in
order to be certified.
 It is the safety factor in the event of engine failure and is similar to the ability of
the fixed-wing aircraft to glide by maintaining a given airflow over the aerofoils.
338
 Autorotation ……………
 If a decision is made to attempt an engine restart in flight (the parameters
for this emergency procedure will be different for each helicopter and must
be precisely followed) the pilot must reengage the engine starter switch to
start the engine. Once the engine is started, the freewheeling unit will
reengage the engine with the main rotor.

Figure: During an autorotation, the upward flow of relative wind permits the main rotor
blades to rotate at their normal speed. In effect, the blades are “gliding” in their rotational
339
plane.
The End!

340