Computer Science An Overview
13th Edition
Chapter 2
Data Manipulation
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Chapter 2: Data Manipulation
• 2.1 Computer Architecture
• 2.2 Machine Language
• 2.3 Program Execution
• 2.4 Arithmetic/Logic
• 2.5 Communicating with Other Devices
• 2.6 Program Data Manipulation
• 2.7 Other Architectures
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2.1 Computer Architecture
• Central Processing Unit (CPU)
– Arithmetic/Logic Unit
– Control Unit
– Register Unit
▪ General purpose registers
▪ Special purpose registers
• Bus
• Main Memory
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Figure 2.1 CPU and main memory
connected via a bus
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Stored Program Concept
A program can be encoded as bit patterns and stored in
Main Memory. From there, the Control Unit can extract,
decode, and execute instructions.
Instead of rewiring the CPU, the program can be altered
by changing the contents of Main Memory.
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2.2 Machine Language
• Machine instruction: An instruction encoded as a bit
pattern recognizable by the CPU
• Machine language: The set of all instructions
recognized by a machine
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Machine Language Philosophies
• Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC)
– Few, simple, efficient, and fast instructions
– Examples: PowerPC from Apple/IBM/Motorola
and ARM
• Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC)
– Many, convenient, and powerful instructions
– Example: Intel
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Machine Instruction Types
• Data Transfer: copy data from one location to another
(e.g. LOAD, STORE)
• Arithmetic/Logic: operations on bit patterns
(e.g. +, -, *, /, AND, OR, SHIFT, ROTATE)
• Control: direct the execution of the program
(e.g. JUMP, BRANCH)
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Figure 2.2 Adding values stored in
memory
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Figure 2.3 Dividing values stored in
memory
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Figure 2.4 The architecture of the Vole, as
described in Appendix C
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Parts of a Machine Instruction
• Op-code: Specifies which operation to execute
• Operand: Gives more detailed information about the
operation
– Interpretation of operand varies depending on op-
code
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Figure 2.5 The composition of a Vole
instruction
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Figure 2.6 Decoding the instruction
0x35A7
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Figure 2.7 An encoded version of the
instructions in Figure 2.2
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2.3 Program Execution
• Controlled by two special purpose registers
– Instruction register
▪ holds current instruction
– Program counter
▪ holds address of next instruction
• Machine Cycle: (repeat these 3 steps)
– Fetch, Decode, Execute
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Figure 2.8 The machine cycle
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Figure 2.9 Decoding the instruction B258
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Figure 2.10 The program from Figure 2.7
stored in main memory ready for execution
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Figure 2.11 Performing the fetch step of
the machine cycle
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Figure 2.11 Performing the fetch step of
the machine cycle (continued)
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2.4 Arithmetic/Logic Instructions
• Logic Operations:
– AND, OR, XOR
– often used to mask an operand
• Rotation and Shift Operations:
– circular shift, logical shift, arithmetic shift
• Arithmetic Operations:
– add, subtract, multiply, divide
– two’s complement versus floating-point
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Figure 2.12 Rotating the bit pattern 0x65
one bit to the right
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2.5 Communicating with Other Devices
• Controller: handles communication between the
computer and other devices
– Specialized (by type of device)
– General purpose (USB, HDMI)
• Port: The point at which a device connects to a
computer
• Memory-mapped I/O: devices appear to the CPU as
though they were memory locations
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Figure 2.13 Controllers attached to a
machine’s bus
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Figure 2.14 A conceptual representation of
memory-mapped I/O
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Communicating with Other Devices
(continued)
• Direct memory access (DMA): Main memory access
by a controller over the bus
– Von Neumann Bottleneck: occurs when the CPU
and controllers compete for bus access
• Handshaking: the process of coordinating the transfer
of data between the computer and the peripheral device
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Communicating with Other Devices
(continued)
• Popular Communication Media
– Parallel Communication: Several signals
transferred at the same time, each on a separate
“line” (computer’s internal bus)
– Serial Communication: Signals are transferred one
after the other over a single “line” (USB, FireWire)
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Data Communication Rates
• Measurement units
– bps: bits per second
– Kbps: Kilo-bps (1,000 bps)
– Mbps: Mega-bps (1,000,000 bps)
– Gbps: Giga-bps (1,000,000,000 bps)
• Bandwidth: Maximum available rate
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2.6 Programming Data Manipulation
• Programing languages shields users from details of the
machine:
– A single Python statement might map to one, tens,
or hundreds of machine instructions
– Programmer does not need to know if the processor
is RISC or CISC
– Assigning variables surely involves LOAD, STORE,
and MOVE op-codes
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Bitwise Problems as Python Code
print(bin(0b10011010 & 0b11001001))
# Prints '0b10001000'
print(bin(0b10011010 | 0b11001001))
# Prints '0b11011011'
print(bin(0b10011010 ^ 0b11001001))
# Prints '0b1010011'
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Control Structures
• If statement:
if (water_temp > 140):
print('Bath water too hot!')
• While statement:
while (n < 10):
print(n)
n = n + 1
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Functions
• Function: A name for a series of operations that should
be performed on the given parameter or parameters
• Function call: Appearance of a function in an
expression or statement
x = 1034
y = 1056
z = 2078
biggest = max(x, y, z)
print(biggest) # Prints '2078'
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Functions (continued)
• Argument Value: A value plugged into a parameter
• Fruitful functions return a value
• void functions, or procedures, do not return a value
sideA = 3.0
sideB = 4.0
# Calculate third side via Pythagorean Theorem
hypotenuse = math.sqrt(sideA**2 + sideB**2)
print(hypotenuse)
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Input / Output
# Calculates the hypotenuse of a right triangle
import math
# Inputting the side lengths, first try
sideA = int(input('Length of side A? '))
sideB = int(input('Length of side B? '))
# Calculate third side via Pythagorean Theorem
hypotenuse = math.sqrt(sideA**2 + sideB**2)
print(hypotenuse)
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Marathon Training Assistant
# Marathon training assistant.
import math
# This function converts a number of minutes and
# seconds into just seconds.
def total_seconds(min, sec):
return min * 60 + sec
# This function calculates a speed in miles per hour
given
# a time (in seconds) to run a single mile.
def speed(time):
return 3600 / time
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Marathon Training Assistant (continued)
# Prompt user for pace and mileage.
pace_minutes = int(input('Minutes per mile? '))
pace_seconds = int(input('Seconds per mile? '))
miles = int(input('Total miles? '))
# Calculate and print speed.
mph = speed(total_seconds(pace_minutes, pace_seconds))
print('Your speed is ' + str(mph) + ' mph')
# Calculate elapsed time for planned workout.
total = miles * total_seconds(pace_minutes, pace_seconds)
elapsed_minutes = total // 60
elapsed_seconds = total % 60
print('Your elapsed time is ' + str(elapsed_minutes) +
' mins ' + str(elapsed_seconds) + ' secs')
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Figure 2.15 Example Marathon Training
Data
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2.7 Other Architectures
• Technologies to increase throughput:
– Pipelining: Overlap steps of the machine cycle
– Parallel Processing: Use multiple processors
simultaneously
▪ SISD: Single Instruction, Single Data
– No parallel processing
▪ MIMD: Multiple Instruction, Multiple Data
– Different programs, different data
▪ SIMD: Single Instruction, Multiple Data
– Same program, different data
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