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What is conservation?
Conservation is the study and protection of biodiversity
and natural resources.

It is not just about

preserving habitats and
species as they are,
although this does play
a part in conservation.

Instead, it is more about actively and carefully maintaining a

balance between ecological needs and human requirements,
which are often in direct conflict with each other.

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Threats to biodiversity
The biggest threats to biodiversity are all due to the effects
of a rapidly increasing human population. They include:

 habitat destruction –
e.g. deforestation for
urban development and
agricultural land,
global warming,
mining and pollution

 overexploitation – e.g. whaling, fishing and wildlife trade

 competition from introduced species – e.g. grey vs.

red squirrels in the UK, the Nile perch vs. cichlid fish in
Lake Victoria, Uganda.
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Mass extinctions
Extinction has always been an ongoing feature of life on
Earth, and is a natural consequence of evolution.

Since life began, there have been at least five mass

extinction events – a sharp decrease in the number of
species in a relatively short period of time.

The most recent of these was

the Cretaceous–Tertiary
Extinction Event 65 million
years ago. This resulted in the
extinction of about 50% of all
species, including the
dinosaurs, and paved the way
for the rise of mammals.

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The Holocene Extinction Event
Many biologists believe that a mass extinction event is
happening at the moment – the Holocene Extinction Event.

The difference between this event and others in the past is

that it is mainly due to human influences, and that it is
occurring at a relatively quicker speed than most other events.

Since 1500, there have been 785 recorded extinctions.

However, it is likely the number of actual extinctions is much
higher.

Some scientists have estimated that between 20,000 and

2 million species may have become extinct last century,
with many more under threat.

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Conservation status

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Conservation: true or false?

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Why conserve?

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Conservation for ethical reasons
Some people think that all species have a right to exist
and there is an ethical reason to ensure they survive.

The argument is that humans

– as the dominant species on
Earth and a major cause of
the current reduction in
biodiversity – should be
responsible for the protection
of the natural environment.

There is also an argument that biodiversity should be

preserved for the benefit and enjoyment of future generations.

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Conservation for aesthetic reasons
Many people take
pleasure in walking in, or
simply looking at, rich,
diverse ecosystems.
Such areas may also
attract tourists and have
economic benefits.

In contrast, areas with

low biodiversity can look
dull and boring, with
little to offer visually.

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Conservation for economic reasons
Zoos, safari parks and other conservation sites attract
tourists and can have a major positive impact on local and
national economies.

A study carried out at the

University of Alberta found that
the financial cost of maintaining
the biodiversity of the Mariba
Forest Reserve in southern
Uganda was significantly lower
than the potential tourist income.

The researchers also modelled a direct correlation between

the number of bird species and the monetary value of the
tourism in the area.

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Conservation for economic reasons

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Conservation for practical reasons
Many species provide humans with useful products and
therefore have a practical, as well an economic, value.
Many more could potentially be of use to future generations.
Examples of useful products include:
 food from plants and animals – only a relatively small
number of species are domesticated, meaning an
outbreak of pests/diseases, or the effects of climate
change and pollution may have severe consequences on
food production.
 industrial materials, such as timber, wood, gums, fibres,
paper, rubber and fuel.
 over 100 medicines, including anti-inflammatories,
painkillers, cancer drugs, anticoagulants and anaesthetics.

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Conservation for ecological reasons
The complexity of
relationships within
ecosystems means
that no species exists
in complete isolation.
This is called
interdependence.

Habitat loss can therefore have a dramatic, widespread and

unpredictable destabilizing ecological effect.

Conserving for ecological reasons may therefore be the most

important long-term consideration.

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Reasons for conservation

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What does conservation involve?
Conservation uses a range of approaches to protect
ecosystems and species. These include:
 restricting industrial and urban development to reduce
habitat loss
 breeding endangered species in captivity
 introducing laws to protect wildlife and the environment
by making certain activities illegal
 establishing national parks, nature reserves and other
conservation areas
 studying habitats and species to have a better
understanding of them and how they can be managed
 educating people about the need for conservation.

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In situ conservation
It is generally preferable to protect and manage species’
habitats so those at risk can recover in their natural
environment.

This is in situ (‘on site’)

conservation and requires
the co-ordination of
different organizations,
individuals and specialities.

Managing habitats may include enhancing the available

shelter and sources of food, or by introducing measures to
reduce predation. Care must be taken not to threaten one
species while protecting another.

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Coppicing
Coppicing is an ancient woodland management technique
where trees are harvested by cutting them down to ground
level and leaving them to re-grow.

Re-growth can be very rapid,

and the longevity of trees can
be dramatically increased,
enabling them to be used as a
sustainable source of wood for
many activities.

Coppicing creates a range of microhabitats – from shaded

areas under mature trees, to clear ground around newly-
coppiced trees – which promotes high species diversity.

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Ex situ conservation
In some cases, organisms may need to be removed from
their original habitat. This is ex situ (‘ off site’) conservation.

It is generally more expensive and not as desirable as

in situ conservation but may be the only option.

Addax nasomaculatus is a
desert antelope that has
become critically
endangered due to
overhunting and habitat
loss. Along with the hostility
of its habitat, these factors
can make in situ
conservation impractical.

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The role of zoos
The first modern zoo was established in the 1750s near
Vienna, and London Zoo was founded in 1826. Before
cameras and TV were invented, zoos were they only place
most people could see exotic animals.

Zoos now play a much

larger role in protecting
and conserving
endangered species
than they originally did.

They also act as

important research
centres and serve to
educate the public.

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Captive breeding programs
Many zoos are involved in captive breeding programmes.
These have several aims:

 increase the number of individuals of a species

 ensure the genetic diversity of the species – exchanging

species between zoos contributes to this

 reintroduce species back in to the wild if feasible.

Reintroducing animals that have been bred in captivity back

into the wild can be a complicated process.

Their habitat must still be intact and protected, and the

individuals may need to learn skills to enable them to survive.

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Reintroduction to the wild
In 1985, only nine Californian condors existed in the wild.
These were taken into a captive breeding programme at
San Diego Zoo, which was later extended to other zoos.

The programme was

successful, leading to the
release of condors in
California, Arizona, Utah
and Mexico. There are
now 300 condors,
including 149 in the wild.

Prior to being released, the birds had to be trained to avoid

hazards such as power-lines and other human activity.

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Criticism of zoos
Some people have questioned the role of zoos, despite their
role in protecting animals at risk of extinction.

They point out that only a relatively small percentage of

animals in zoos are endangered or are involved in captive
breeding programmes.

Despite improvements
in welfare, some
animals are kept in
conditions much
different from their
natural habitat, and may
show uncharacteristic
behaviour.

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Thinking about zoos…

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The role of botanic gardens
Plants can be conserved
ex situ in botanic gardens.

The first in Britain opened

at the University of Oxford
in 1621, and was initially
established to research
and cultivate plants with
medicinal properties.

The largest botanic gardens, such as the Royal Botanic

Gardens at Kew and Edinburgh, are home to thousands of
plant species, many endangered, and are world-leading
centres for botanical research and conservation.

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What are seed banks?
Another way in which plants can be conserved ex situ is
through seed banks.

These store dormant seeds from wild and crop species so

they could potentially be reintroduced should they become
extinct in the wild. They can also be used as an easily
obtainable source of research material.

Seeds are cleaned, checked,

dried and packaged for storage
at sub-zero temperatures.
Samples are periodically
germinated to ensure they are
still viable, and then replanted
so fresh seeds can be collected.

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The Millennium Seed Bank Project
The Millennium Seed Bank Project, co-ordinated by the
Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, aims to collect seeds from
over 24,000 species worldwide, including the UK’s entire
seed-bearing flora, by 2010.

The project involves a global

network of conservations, and
the Royal Gardens have
established major partnerships
in 18 countries.

Over 75% of the seeds have

already been collected,
including 96% of the UK's
higher plants species.

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In situ or ex situ?

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Conservation legislation

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Scientist case study

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Glossary

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What’s the keyword?

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Multiple-choice quiz

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