Methods of Data Collection

Methods of Data Collection

• The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been
defined and research design/plan chalked out.
• While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for
the study, the researcher should keep in mind two types of data
-------- primary and secondary
• Two types of data:
Primary data and secondary data
• The primary data are those which collected afresh and for the first
time, and thus happens to be original in character.
• The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already
been collected by someone else and which have already been passed
through statistical process.
• The methods of collecting primary and secondary data differ since
primary data are to be originally collected, while in case of secondary
data the nature of data collection work is merely that of compilation.
Collection of primary data
We collect primary data during the course of doing experiments in an experimental
research but in case we do research of the descriptive type and perform surveys,
whether sample surveys or census surveys, then we can obtain primary data either
through observation or through direct communication with respondents in one form or
another or through personal interviews.

There are several methods of collecting primary data, particularly in surveys and
descriptive researches.

1. observation method
2. interview method
3. through questionnaires
4. through schedules
5. other methods which include
(a)warranty cards
(b)distributor audits
(c) Pantry audits
(d) Consumer panels
(e) using mechanical devices
(f) through projective techniques
(g) depth interviews
(h) content analysis
• Observation Method
• The observation method is the most commonly used method specially in studies
relating to behavioral sciences.
• Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the
researcher, when it serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically
planned and recorded and is subjected to checks and controls on validity and
reliability.
• Under the observation method, the information is sought by way of
investigator’s own direct observation without asking from the respondent.
• For example, In a study relating to consumer behavior, the investigator instead
of asking the brand of wrist watch used by the respondent, may himself look at
the watch.

• Advantages of observation method-

• Subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately.
• The information obtained under this method relates to what is currently
happening; it is not complicated by either the past behavior or future intentions
or attitudes.
• This method is independent of respondents willingness to respond and as such is
relatively less demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents as happens
to be the case in the interview or the questionnaire method.
• Observation method is particularly suitable in studies which deal with subjects(i.e.,
respondents) who are not capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one
reason or the other.
• Limitations of observation method
• It is an expensive method.
• The information provided by this method is very limited.
• Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task.
• At times, the fact that some people are rarely accessible to direct observation creates
obstacle for this method to collect data effectively.

• While using observation method, the researcher should keep in mind like:
• What should be observed?
• How the observations should be recorded?
• Or how the accuracy of observation can be ensured?
• Structured observation ---- In case the observation is characterised by a careful
definition of the units to be observed, the style of recording the observed information,
standardised conditions of observation and the selection of pertinent data of
observation, then the observation is called as structured observation.
• Unstructured observation ----- When observation is to take place without the characteristics mentioned
in structured observation.
• Structured observation is considered appropriate in descriptive studies, whereas in an exploratory study
the observational procedure is most likely to be relatively unstructured.
• Participant and non-participant types of observation
• The distinction between participant and non-participant types of observation in the context of studies,
particularly of social sciences depends upon the observer’s sharing or not sharing the life of the group he
is observing.
• Participant observation – If the observer observes by making himself, more or less, a member of the
group he is observing so that he can experience what the members of the group experience, the
observation is called as the participant observation.
• Non-participant observation – When the observer observes as a detached emissary without any
attempt on his part to experience through participation what others feel, the observation of this type is
often termed as non-participant observation.
• Disguised observation- When the observer is observing in such a manner that his presence may be
unknown to the people he is observing, such an observation is described as disguised observation.
• Merits of participant type of observation:
• The researcher is enabled to record the natural behaviour of the group.
• The researcher can even gather information which could not easily be obtained if he observes in a
disinterested fashion.
• The researcher can even verify the truth of statements made by informants in the context of a
questionnaire or a schedule.
• Demerits of participant type of observation:
• The observer may lose the objectivity to the extent he participates emotionally; the problem of
observation-control is not solved; and it may narrow-down the researcher’s range of experience.
• Controlled and uncontrolled observation
• If the observation takes place in the natural setting, it may be termed as
uncontrolled observation, but when observation takes place according to definite
pre-arranged plans, involving experimental procedure, the same is then termed
controlled observation.
• In controlled observation, we use mechanical (or precision) instruments as aids to
accuracy and standardization.
• Such observation has a tendency to supply formalized data upon which
generalizations can be built with some degree of assurance.
• Controlled observation takes place in various experiments that are carried out in a
laboratory or under controlled conditions
• In non-controlled observation, no attempt is made to use precision instruments.
The major aim of this type of observation is to get a spontaneous picture of life and
persons. It has a tendency to supply naturalness and completeness of behavior,
allowing sufficient time for observing it.
• The main pitfall of non-controlled observation is that of subjective interpretation.
There is also the danger of having the feeling that we know more about the
observed phenomena that we actually do.
• Uncontrolled observation is resorted to in case of exploratory researches.
• Case Study Method
• The case study method is a very popular form of qualitative analysis and involves a careful and
complete observation of a social unit, be that unit a person, a family, an institution, a cultural group or
even the entire community. It is a method of study in depth rather than breadth. The case study places
more emphasis on the full analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their interrelations.
• The case study deals with the processes that take place and their interrelationship. Thus, case study is
essentially an intensive investigation of the particular unit under consideration. The object of the case
study method is to locate the factors that account for the behavior patterns of the given unit as an
integrated totality.

• “The case study method is a technique by which individual factor whether it be an institution or just an
episode in the life of an individual or a group is analysed in its relationship to any other in the group”.
----------------- H. Odum
• Thus, a fairly exhaustive study of a person (as to what he does and has done, what he thinks he does
and had done and what he expects to do and says he ought to do) or group is called a life or case
history.

• Pauline V. Young describes case study as “a comprehensive study of a social unit be that unit a person,
a group, a social institution, a district or a community”.
• In brief, case study method is a form of qualitative analysis where in careful and complete observation
of an individual or a situation or an institution is done; efforts are made to study each and every aspect
of the concerning unit in minute details and then from case data generalisations and inferences are
drawn.
• Characteristics of case study method:
• The important characteristics of the case study method are as follows:
• Under this method the researcher can take one single social unit or more of such units for his study
purpose; he may even take a situation to study the same comprehensively.
• Here the selected unit is studied intensively i.e., it is studied in minute details. Generally, the study
extends over a long period of time to ascertain the natural history of the unit so as to obtain enough
information for drawing correct inferences.
• In the context of this method we make complete study of the social unit covering all facets. Through this
method we try to understand the complex of factors that are operative within a social unit as an
integrated totality.
• Under this method the approach happens to be qualitative and not quantitative. Mere quantitative
information is not collected. Every possible effort is made to collect information concerning all aspects of
life. As such, case study deepens our perception and gives us a clear insight into life. For instance, under
this method we not only study how many crimes a man has done but shall peep into the factors that
forced him to commit crimes when we are making a case study of a man as a criminal. The objective of
the study may be to suggest ways to reform the criminal.
• In respect of the case study method an effort is made to know the mutual inter-relationship of casual
factors.
• Under case study method the behavior pattern of the concerning unit is studied directly and not by an
indirect and abstract approach.
• Case study method results in fruitful hypotheses along with the data which may be helpful in testing
them, and thus it enables the generalized knowledge to get richer and richer. In its absence, generalized
social science may get handicapped.
• Advantages of case study
• Being an exhaustive study of a social unit, the case study method enables us to understand fully the
behavior pattern of the concerned unit. In the words of Charles Horton Cooley, “case study deepens
our perception and gives us a clearer insight into life………………… It gets at behavior directly and not
by an indirect and abstract approach.”
• Through case study a researcher can obtain a real and enlightened record of personal experiences
which would reveal man’s inner strivings, tensions and motivations that drive him to action along
with the forces that direct him to adopt a certain pattern of behavior.
• This method enables the researcher to trace out the natural history of the social unit and its
relationship with the social factors and the forces involved in its surrounding environment.
• It helps in formulating relevant hypotheses along with the data which may be helpful in testing
them. Case studies, thus, enable the generalized knowledge to get richer and richer.
• The method facilitates intensive study of social units which is generally not possible if we use either
the observation method or the method of collecting information through schedules. This the reason
why case study method is being frequently used, particularly in social researches.
• Information collected under the case study method helps a lot to the researcher in the task of
constructing the appropriate questionaire or schedule for the said task requires thorough
knowledge of the concerning universe.
• The researcher can use one or more of the several research methods under the case study method
depending upon the prevalent circumstances. In other words, the use of different methods such as
depth interviews, questionaires, documents, study reports of individuals, letters, and the like is
possible under case study method.
• Case study method has proved beneficial in determining the nature of
units to be studied along with the nature of the universe. This is the
reason why at times the case study method is alternatively known as
“mode of organizing data”.
• This method is a means to well understand the past of a social unit
because of its emphasis of historical analysis. Besides, it is also a
technique to suggest measures for improvement in the context of the
present environment of the concerned social units.
• Case studies constitute the perfect type of sociological material as they
represent a real record of personal experiences which very often escape
the attention of most of the skilled researchers using other techniques.
• Case study method enhances the experience of the researcher and this in
turn increases his analyzing ability and skill.
• This method makes possible the study of social changes. On account of
the minute study of the different facets of a social unit, the researcher can
well understand the social change then and now. This also facilitates the
drawing of inferences and helps in maintaining the continuity of the
research process. In fact, it may be considered the gateway to and at the
same time the final destination of abstract knowledge.
 Limitations
• Case situations are seldom comparable and as such the information gathered in
case studies is often not comparable. Since the subject under case study tells
history in his own words, logical concepts and units of scientific classification
have to be read into it or out of it by the investigator.
• Read Bain does not consider the case data as significant scientific data since
they do not provide knowledge of the “impersonal, universal, non-ethical, non-
practical, repetitive aspects of phenomena. Real information is often not
collected because the subjectivity of the researcher does not enter in the
collection of information in a case study.
• The danger of false generalisation is always there in view of the fact that no set
rules are followed in collection of the information and only few units are
studied.
• It consumes more time and requires lot of expenditure. More time is needed
under case study method since one studies the natural history cycles of social
units and that too minutely.
• Case study method can be used only in a limited sphere., it is not possible to
use it in case of a big society. Sampling is also not possible under a case study
method.
Questionnaire Design
• Questionnaire Design
• This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of
big enquiries. It is being adopted by private individuals, research
workers, private and public organizations and even by governments.
• In this method a questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to the persons
concerned with a request to answer the questions and return the
questionnaire.
• A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in
a definite order on a form or set of forms.
• The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read
and understand the questions and write down the reply in the space
meant for the purpose in the questionnaire itself.
• The respondents have to answer the questions on their own.
 Ten Steps Towards Designing a Questionnaire

• 1. What are you trying to find out?

• A good questionnaire is designed so that your results will tell you
what you want to find out.
• Start by writing down what you are trying to do in a few clear
sentences, and design your questionnaire around this.
• 2. How are you going to use the information?
• There is no point conducting research if the results aren’t going to be
used – make sure you know why you are asking the questions in the
first place.
• Make sure you cover everything you will need when it come to
analysing the answers. e.g. maybe you want to compare answers
given by men and women. You can only do this if you’ve remembered
to record the gender of each respondent on each questionnaire.
• 3. Telephone, Postal, Web, Face-to-Face?
• There are many methods used to ask questions, and each has its
good and bad points.
• For example, postal surveys can be cheap but responses can be low
and can take a long time to receive, face-to-face can be expensive but
will generate the fullest responses, web surveys can be cost-effective
but hit and miss on response rates, and telephone can be costly, but
will often generate high response rates, give fast turnaround and will
allow for probing.
• 4. Qualitative or Quantitative?
• Do you want to focus on the number e.g. 87% of respondents
thought this, or are you more interested in interpreting feedback
from respondents to bring out common themes?
• The method used will generally be determined by the subject matter
you are researching and the types of respondents you will be
contacting.
• 5. Keep it short. In fact, quite often the shorter the better.
• We are all busy, and as a general rule people are less likely
to answer a long questionnaire than a short one.
• If you are going to be asking your customers to answer your
questionnaire in-store, make sure the interview is no longer
than 10 minutes maximum (this will be about 10 to 15
questions).
• If your questionnaire is too long, try to remove some
questions. Read each question and ask, "How am I going to
use this information?" If you don’t know, don’t include it!
• 6. Use simple and direct language.
• The questions must be clearly understood by the
respondent. The wording of a question should be simple
and to the point. Do not use uncommon words or long
sentences.
• 7. Start with something general.
• Respondents will be put-off and may even refuse to
complete your questionnaire if you ask questions
that are too personal at the start (e.g. questions
about financial matters, age, even whether or not
they are married).
• 8. Place the most important questions in the first
half of the questionnaire.
• Respondents sometimes only complete part of a
questionnaire. By putting the most important items
near the beginning, the partially completed
questionnaires will still contain important
information.
• 9. Leave enough space to record the answers.
• If you are going to include questions which may require a
long answer e.g. ask someone why they do a particular
thing, then make sure you leave enough room to write in
the possible answers. It sounds obvious, but it’s so often
overlooked!

• 10. Test your questionnaire on your colleagues.

• No matter how much time and effort you put into designing
your questionnaire, there is no substitute for testing it.
Complete some interviews with your colleagues BEFORE
you ask the real respondents. This will allow you to time
your questionnaire, make any final changes, and get
feedback from your colleagues.
• Collection of data through schedules
• This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data through
questionnaire, with little difference which lies in the fact that schedules (proforma
containing a set of questions) are being filled in by the enumerators who are
specially appointed for the purpose.
• These enumerators along with schedules, go to respondents, put them the
questions from the proforma in the order the questions are listed and record the
replies in the space meant for the same in the proforma.
• In certain situations, schedules may be handed over to respondents and
enumerators may help them in recording their answers to various questions in the
said schedules.
• Enumerators explain the aims and objects of the investigation and also remove the
difficulties which any respondent may feel in understanding the implications of a
particular question or the definition or concept of difficult terms.
• This method requires the selection of enumerators for filling up schedules or
assisting respondents to fill up schedules and as such enumerators should be very
carefully selected.
• The enumerators should be trained to perform their job well and the nature and
scope of the investigation should be explained to them thoroughly so that they
may well understand the implications of different questions put in the schedule.
• Enumerators should be intelligent and must possess the capacity of cross
examination in order to find out the truth.
• Above all, they should be honest, sincere, hardworking and should have patience
and perseverance.
• Collection of data through schedule is very useful in extensive enquiries and can
lead to fairly reliable results. It is, however, very expensive and is usually adopted in
investigations conducted by governmental agencies or by some big organizations.
• Population census all over the world is conducted through schedule method.
• Difference between questionnaires and schedules
• Both questionnaire and schedule are popularly used methods of collecting data in
research surveys.
• There is much resemblance in the nature of these two methods and this fact has
made many people to remark that from a practical point of view, the two methods
can be taken to be the same. But from the technical point of view there is
difference between the two.
• The important points of difference are as follows:
• The questionnaire is generally sent through mail to informants to be answered as
specified in a covering letter, but otherwise without further assistance from the
sender. The schedule is generally filled out by the research worker or the
enumerator, who can interpret questions when necessary.
• To collect data through questionnaire is relatively cheap and economical since we
have to spend money only in preparing the questionnaire and in mailing the same
to respondents. Here no field staff required. To collect data through schedules is
relatively more expensive since considerable amount of money has to be spent in
appointing enumerators and in importing training to them. Money is also spent in
preparing schedules.
• Non-response is usually high in case of questionnaire as many people do not
respond and many return the questionnaire without answering all questions. Bias
due to non-response often remains indeterminate. In case of schedule method,
non-response is generally very low because these are filled by enumerators who
are able to get answers to all questions. But there remains the danger of
interviewer bias and cheating.

• In case of questionnaire, it is not always clear as to who replies, but in case of

schedule the identity of respondent is known.
• The questionnaire method is likely to be very slow since many respondents do not
return the questionnaire in time despite several reminders, but in case of schedules
the information is collected well in time as they are filled in by enumerators.
• Personal contact is generally not possible in case of the questionnaire method as
questionnaires are sent to respondents by post who also return the same by post.
But in case of schedules direct personal contact is established with respondents.
• Questionnaire method can be used only when respondents are literate and
cooperative, but in case of schedules the information can be gathered even when
the respondents happen to be illiterate.
• Wider and more representative distribution of sample is possible under the
questionnaire method, but in respect of schedules there usually remains the
difficulty in sending enumerators over a relatively wider area.
• Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong information is relatively more under the
questionnaire method, particularly when people are unable to understand
questions properly. But in case of schedules, the information collected is generally
complete and accurate as enumerators can remove the difficulties, if any, faced by
respondents in correctly understanding the questions. As a result, the information
collected through schedules is relatively more accurate than that obtained through
questionnaires.
• The success of questionnaire method lies more on the quality of the questionnaire
itself, but in the case of schedules much depends upon the honesty and
competence of enumerators.
• In order to attract the attention of respondents, the physical appearance of
questionnaire must be quite attractive, but this may not be so in case of schedules
as they are to be filled in by enumerators and not by respondents.
• Along with schedules, observation method can also be used but such a thing is not
possible while collecting data through questionnaires.
• Case study 1 iron(III) tris(acetylacetonate) The compound was
prepared from iron(III) citrate, following a published protocol (19,22).
Sodium acetate (auxiliary material) was used as a buffer and was kept
constant in all syntheses. The ratio of acetylacetone (Hacac):Fe(III)
was varied to study the influence of excess of Hacac (3 140%) on the
yield and metrics.

• Case study 2 iron(II) oxalate dihydrate The compound was prepared

from iron(II) sulfate heptahydrate and oxalic acid dihydrate under
different conditions (16), following a published protocol (23). Sulfuric
acid was used as an auxiliary material to acidify the iron(II) sulfate
solution. Alternatively sulfuric acid was substituted by ascorbic acid
to reduce iron(III). The ratio of oxalic acid:Fe(II) was varied to study
the influence of excess of oxalic acid (9 76%) on the yield and metrics.
 Verbal Rating Scales

How satisfied were you with today’s meal?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Extremely Dissatisfied Somewhat Neither Somewhat Satisfied Extremely
Dissatisfied Dissatisfied Satisfied Satisfied
 Issues in Designing
Verbal Rating Scales
• Many measures taken by marketing researchers are verbal ratings

• What do we need to consider when we develop verbal rating scales?

– Number of categories
– Forced vs. unforced scale
– Balanced or unbalanced scale
– Extent of verbal description
– Should response categories be numbered or not
– Comparative vs. noncomparative scale
– Scale direction
 Number of Response Categories?
• To what extent are you satisfied with your current MP3 player?

• Most researchers suggest between 5 and 7 categories; for example:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Extremely Dissatisfied Somewhat Neither Somewhat Satisfied Extremely
Dissatisfied Dissatisfied Satisfied Satisfied

• Too few does not give you enough information

• Too many and it will be hard for people to discriminate between the
options (e.g., a 100-point scale)
 Forced vs. Unforced Scale?
• How likely would you be to buy a car manufactured in Brazil?

• Forced Scale (even number of options forces the respondent to lean

one way or the other):

1 2 3 4 5 6
Very Unlikely Somewhat Somewhat Likely Very
Unlikely Unlikely Likely Likely

• Unforced scale gives people a neutral option:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Very Unlikely Somewhat Neither Somewhat Likely Very
Unlikely Unlikely Likely Likely
 Balanced vs. Unbalanced Scale?
• How satisfied are you with your current hair stylist?

• Balanced scale (same number of positive and negative options):

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Extremely Dissatisfied Somewhat Neither Somewhat Satisfied Extremely
Dissatisfied Dissatisfied Satisfied Satisfied

• Unbalanced scale (here all options are positive):

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Somewhat Very
Satisfied Satisfied

• Unbalanced scale can give biased results; unless distribution is

naturally skewed to one side of the scale, should use balanced scale
 Extent of Verbal Description?
• The U.S. should invest in wind powered energy

• Label endpoints or label all options?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strongly Strongly
Disagree Agree

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strongly Moderately Slightly Neither Agree Slightly Moderately Strongly
Disagree Disagree Disagree or Disagree Agree Agree Agree

• Labeling all options can aid in interpretation.

 Should Categories be Numbered?
• Toyota is an Environmentally Friendly Company

Strongly Moderately Slightly Neither Agree Slightly Moderately Strongly

Disagree Disagree Disagree or Disagree Agree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Should we have
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 numbers here?

• Numbers can help respondents understand scale

• 1 to 7 scale quite common

• But -3 to +3 can help interpretation of scale (disagree is negative,

agree is positive); it may, however, overemphasize negativity

• Judgment call; pretesting both scales could help identify problems

 Comparative vs. Noncomparative?
• Noncomparative question
• How would you evaluate Mintifresh toothpaste?

• Comparative question
• Compared to your current brand, how would you evaluate
Mintifresh toothpaste?

• Comparative questions establish the referent and can be useful if you

need to know how your product compares to a specific competitor or
the customer’s current brand

• Noncomparative have the advantage of allowing the respondent to

create their own referent, which can potentially improve accuracy
 Direction of Scale?
• Typical direction (lower values, negative connotation on left):

Strongly Moderately Slightly Neither Agree Slightly Moderately Strongly

Disagree Disagree Disagree or Disagree Agree Agree Agree
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

• Some scales are not valenced, so must be careful about positioning.

Here we see a semantic differential scale, with amusing positioning:

Unpleasant -2 -1 0 1 2 Pleasant
Flimsy -2 -1 0 1 2 Sturdy
Male -2 -1 0 1 2 Female

• This arrangement suggests that males are to be evaluated negatively;

must be careful in designing scales so as not to bias results
Other Types of Scales

Rank order the restaurants above where

1 = most preferred, 3 = least preferred
Customer Satisfaction On Qrz Family Restaurant

Dear Customer,
Good day! The QRZ Family Restaurant is dedicated to improving customer
satisfaction. Through this brief survey, your answers will be helpful in enhancing
our services and meeting your needs. Your response will only be used for survey
purposes. Attached is a meal coupon good for 3 months as a token of our good
will. In case you have any questions regarding the survey, please call Johnny
Smith at 123-456-7890. Thank you very much for your time and suggestions.
Notes: The introduction should be inviting but professional. It must clearly state the
purpose and goals of the survey, as well as the duration of the survey (optional) and
brief information about the company conducting the survey. As for the guarantee of
confidentiality, it may be placed within the introduction or in a separate page. Information
about any incentive you are willing to provide should also be indicated.
II. Questions
Directions: Please indicate your level of agreement or disagreement with each of
these statements regarding QRZ Family Restaurant. Place an "X" mark in the box
of your answer.
Q1: How many times per year do you visit QRZ Family Restaurant?
____
Q2: Do you visit QRZ Family Restaurant with family or friends?
□ Yes □ No
 Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree
1. The store is
accessibly
located.

2. Store hours
are convenient
for my dining
needs.
3. Advertised
dish was in stock.

4. A good
selection of
dishes was
present.
5. The meals sold
are a good value
for the money.
6. Store has the
lowest prices in
the area.
7. Meals sold are
of the highest
quality.

8. Store
atmosphere and
decor are
Q9: How would you rate your overall experience at the QRZ Family Restaurant?
□ Highly satisfactory
□ Satisfactory
□ Neutral
□ Unsatisfactory
□ Highly Unsatisfactory
Q10: What could we do to make your restaurant dining experience better?
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
Notes: The questionnaire may contain mixed closed-ended and open-ended questions as well as
response formats. However, it is ideal to begin with closed-ended questions for higher response rates.
III. Demographic Data
Name (optional):_________________________________
Age: ____
Gender: ____
Number of Family Members:
□ 1-2
□ 3-5
□ 6-10
□ more than 10
Email Address (optional): _______________________________
Notes: This section is optional. The questions asking for demographic data should be relevant to the survey goal
and must point to the characteristics of the target population.
IV. Thank you for sharing your thoughts with us. Enjoy dining at QRZ Family Restaurant.
Note: This section may also include further information regarding on how to claim the incentive that you wish to
provide to the respondent.
 Category of animal behavior
Time Walking Sleeping Eating
14:02 x
14:04 x
14:06 x
14:08 x
14:10 x
14:12 x
14:14 x
14:16 x
14:18 x
14:20 x

Lab Instructions
1) Complete each sampling method described above for 15 minutes each method,
taking careful notes regarding your observations. Try to decide a priori what the
behaviors are and how you will measure them.
Remember to record the species observed, but avoid anthropomorphisms (such as
dragonflies liking the cool, refreshing water).
2) Construct an Ethogram of a focal individual noting the species.
3) From these observations, create an experimental question, the null and 2
alternative hypotheses, and their corresponding predictions.
4) Go to Web of Science and find two citations relevant to your experimental
question.
5) Your lab report should include 1-4, the raw data typed and added as an appendix.
INTERVIEW METHOD
• The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal
stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses. This method can be used
through personal interviews and, if possible, through telephone interviews.
• Personal interviews: Personal interview method requires a person known as the
interviewer asking questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person
or persons.
• This sort of interview may be in the form of direct personal investigation or it may
be indirect oral investigation.
• In the case of direct personal investigation the interviewer has to collect the
information personally from the sources concerned. He has to be on the spot and
has to meet people from whom data have to be collected. This method is
particularly suitable for intensive investigations.
• The method of collecting information through personal interviews is usually
carried out in a structured way.
• Structured interviews are interviews which involve the use of a set of
predetermined questions and of highly standardized techniques of recording.
• Thus, the interviewer in a structured interview follows a rigid procedure laid
down, asking questions in a form and order prescribed.
• In case of descriptive studies, we quite often use the technique or structured
interview because of its being more economical, providing a safe basis for
generalisation and requiring relatively lesser skill on the part of the interviewer.
• Unstructured interviews are characterized by a flexibility of approach to
questioning.
• It does not follow a system of pre-determined questions and standardized
techniques or recording information.
• In a non-structured interview, the interviewer is allowed much greater freedom to
ask, in case of need, supplementary questions or at times he may omit certain
questions if the situation so requires.
• He may even change the sequence of questions. He has relatively greater freedom
while recording the responses to include some aspects and exclude others.
• But this sort of flexibility results in lack of comparability of one interview with
another and the analysis of unstructured responses becomes much more difficult
and time consuming than that of the structured responses obtained in case of
structured interviews.
• Unstructured interviews also demand deep knowledge and greater skill on the part
of the interviewer.
• Merits of interview method:
• More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained.
• Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of the respondents;
the interview method can be made to yield almost perfect sample of the general
population.
• There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to restructure
questions is always there, specially in case of unstructured interviews.
• Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal answers to various
questions.
• Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this method.
• Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises no difficulty of the
missing returns; non-response generally remains very low.
• The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer the questions. This
is not possible in mailed questionnaire approach. If so desired, group discussions
may also be held.
• The language of the interview can be adopted to the ability or educational level of
the person interviewed and as such misinterpretations concerning questions can be
avoided.
• The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the respondent’s
personal characteristics and environment which is often of great value in
interpreting results.
• Weaknesses of the interview method:
• It is a very expensive method, specially when large and widely spread geographical
sample is taken.
• There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the
respondent; there also remains the headache of supervision and control of
interviewers.
• Certain types of respondents such as important officials or executives or people in
high income groups may not be easily approachable under this method and to that
extent the data may prove inadequate.
• This method is relatively more-time-consuming, specially when the sample is large
and recalls upon the respondents are necessary.
• The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the respondent,
sometimes even to the extent that he may give imaginary information just to
make the interview interesting.
• Telephone interviews: This method of collecting information consists in contacting
respondents on telephone itself. It is not a very widely used method, but plays
important part in industrial surveys, particularly in developed regions.
• Chief merits of telephone interviews:
• It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.
• It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining information.
• It is cheaper than personal interviewing method; here the cost per response is
relatively low.
• Recall is easy; callbacks are simple and economical.
• There is a higher rate of response than what we have in mailing method; the non-
response is generally very low.
• Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to respondents.
• Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.
• At times, access can be gained to respondents who otherwise cannot be contacted
for one reason or the other.
• No field staff is required.
• Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.
• Demerits of telephone interviews:
• Little time is given to respondents for considered answers; interview period is not
likely to exceed five minutes in most cases.
• Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone facilities.
• Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted by cost considerations.
• It is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive answers are required
to various questions.
• Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is relatively more.
• Questions have to be short and to the point; probes are difficult to handle.