Chapter Two

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES

Jan, 2019
2-1. Computer System: Hardware

 Computer hard ware is the physical parts of computing devices – those that you
can actually touch – are referred to as hardware.
 In this chapter, we will take a look at this component of information systems,
learn a little bit about how it works, and discuss some of the current trends
surrounding it.
Digital Devices
 A digital device processes electronic signals that represent either a one (“on”) or
a zero (“off”). The on state is represented by the presence of an electronic signal;
the off state is represented by the absence of an electronic signal. Each one or
zero is referred to as a bit (a contraction of binary digit); a group of eight bits is
a byte.
Types of Computer Systems

Hardware: Computer System Categories

Mainframe
Computers

Midrange
Computers

Microcomputers
 Microcomputer Systems: called a personal computer , or PC

 Microcomputers are the most important category of computer systems for both
businesspeople and consumers
 Microcomputers come in a variety of sizes and shapes for a variety of purposes
E.g. PCs are available as handheld, notebook, laptop, tablet, portable, desktop, and floor-
standing models. Or, based on their use, they include home, personal, professional, workstation,
and multiuser systems.

 Most microcomputers are desktops designed to fit on an office desk or laptops

for those who want a small, portable PC.
 Some microcomputers are powerful workstation computers (technical
workstations) that support applications with heavy mathematical computing and
graphics display demands
 Other microcomputers are used as network servers . These are usually more
powerful microcomputers that coordinate telecommunications and resource
sharing
 Midrange Systems

 Midrange systems are primarily high-end network servers and

other types of servers that can handle the large-scale processing of
many business applications.
 Although not as powerful as mainframe computers, they are less
costly to buy, operate, and maintain than mainframe systems and
thus meet the computing needs of many organizations
 Mainframe Computer Systems

 Mainframes can process thousands of million instructions per second

(MIPS). Mainframes can also have large primary storage capacities.
 Mainframes have slimmed down drastically in the last few years,
dramatically reducing their air-conditioning needs, electrical power
consumption, and floor space requirements— and thus their
acquisition and operating costs.
 Thus, mainframe computers continue to handle the information
processing needs of major corporations and government agencies with
high transaction processing volumes or complex computational
problems.
 For example, major international banks, airlines, oil companies, and other large
corporations process millions of sales transactions and customer inquiries each day with
the help of large mainframe systems
 Computer System Components

Central
Central Processing
Processing Unit
Unit

Arithmetic-Logic Unit ALU

Input Control Unit Output
Output
Devices Devices
Devices

Special Cache Primary Storage

Purpose Memory
Processors

Secondary
Storage
Devices
.
 Cont’d

 Input: the input devices of a computer system include computer

keyboards, touch screens, pens, electronic mice, and optical scanners.
They convert data into electronic form for direct entry or through a
telecommunications network into a computer system

 Processing: the central processing unit (CPU) is the main processing

component of a computer system. Conceptually, the circuitry of a CPU
can be subdivided into two major subunits: the arithmetic-logic unit
and the control unit.

 Output: the output devices of a computer system include video

display units, printers, and audio response units. They convert
electronic information produced by the computer system into
human-intelligible form for presentation to end users
 Cont’d

 Storage: the storage function of a computer system takes place in the

storage circuits of the computer’s primary storage unit , or memory ,
supported by secondary storage devices such as magnetic disk and optical
disk drives. These devices store data and software instructions needed
for processing.
 Computer processors may also include storage circuitry called cache
memory for high-speed, temporary storage of instruction and data
elements.

 Control: the control unit of a CPU is the control component of a

computer system. Its registers and other circuits interpret software
instructions and transmit directions that control the activities of the
other components of the computer system
 Primary & Secondary Storage Media

Semiconductor
Semiconductor

Storage
Primary
Memory
Memory Direct
s
ec ses
rea ease

Access
y D re a
r

Magnetic
Magnetic Disks
ses

Disks
pe acit Inc

Floppy
Floppy Disk
Disk
p d
C o e C a pe e

nc

Hard
Hard Disk,
Disk, RAID
RAID
it I
S
rag ess

rB
Sto Acc

Sequential
st

Magnetic
Magnetic Tape
Tape Access

Secondary
Storage
Optical
Optical Disks
Disks
CD-ROM, Direct
CD-ROM, CD-R
CD-R
Access
CD-RW
CD-RW
DVD
DVD
 Cont’d

Semiconductor Memory
 The primary storage (main memory) of your computer consists of
microelectronic semiconductor memory chips
 It provides you with the working storage your computer needs to process your
applications
 Some of the major attractions of semiconductor memory are its small size, great
speed, and shock and temperature resistance.
 One major disadvantage of most semiconductor memory is its volatility
 Uninterrupted electric power must be supplied, or the contents of memory will
be lost.
 Cont’d

 There are two basic types of semiconductor memory: random-access memory

(RAM) and read-only memory (ROM)
 RAM, random-access memory. These memory chips are primary storage
medium. Any program that you are running on the computer is loaded into
RAM for processing
 Each memory position can be both sensed (read) and changed (written), so it is
also called read/write memory.
 In order for a computer to work effectively, some minimal amount of RAM
must be installed. In most cases, adding more RAM will allow the computer to
run faster.
 Another characteristic of RAM is that it is “volatile.” This means that it can store data as
long as it is receiving power; when the computer is turned off, any data stored in RAM is lost

 ROM, read-only memory. Nonvolatile random-access memory chips are used

for permanent storage; ROM can be read but not erased or overwritten.
 Cont’d
Hard Disk
 While the RAM is used as working memory, the computer also needs a place to
store data for the longer term. Most of today’s personal computers use a hard disk
for long-term data storage. A hard disk is where data is stored when the computer
is turned off & where it is retrieved from when the computer is turned on
 Why is it called a hard disk? A hard disk consists of a stack of disks inside a hard
metal case.
Removable Media
 Besides fixed storage components, removable storage media are also used in
most personal computers.
 Removable media allows you to take your data with you. And just as with all
other digital technologies, these media have gotten smaller and more powerful as
the years have gone by.
 Early computers used floppy disks, which could be inserted into a disk drive in
the computer
 Cont’d

 Magnetic Disks: are the most common form of secondary storage

for your computer system
 There are several types of magnetic disk arrangements, including
removable disk cartridges as well as fixed disk units.
 Removable disk devices are popular because they are transportable
and can be used to store backup copies of your data off-line for
convenience and security
 Cont’d

 Magnetic tape: is still being used as a secondary storage

medium in business applications.

 The read/write heads of magnetic tape drives record data in the

form of magnetized spots on the iron oxide coating of the plastic
tape.
 Magnetic tape devices include tape reels and cartridges in
mainframes and midrange systems and small cassettes or
cartridges for PCs.
 Cont’d

Optical Disks: a fast-growing type of storage media, use several major

alternative technologies.
 CD-ROM (compact disk–read-only memory
 CD-R (compact disk–recordable): commonly used to record data
permanently on CDs
 CD-RW (CD-rewritable) drives record and erase data
NB: The major limitation of CD-ROM and CD-R disks is that recorded data
cannot be erased
 DVD (digital video disk or digital versatile disk):
• DVD-ROM disks are increasingly replacing magnetic tape
videocassettes for movies and other multimedia products, while
• DVD RW disks are being used for backup and archival storage of large
data and multimedia files.
 2-2 Computer System: Software

 Software is the set of instructions that tell the hardware what to

do. Software is created through the process of programming.
Without software, the hardware would not be functional
 Software can be broadly divided into two categories: operating
software and application software.
 As shown in the next slide, each has its own sub section.
Cont’d

Categories of Computer Software

Computer
Computer
Software
Software

Operating
Operating
Application
Application System
Software System
Software Software
Software

General-
General- Application-
Application- System
System System
System
Purpose
Purpose Specific
Specific Management
Management Development
Development
Programs
Programs Programs
Programs Programs
Programs Programs
Programs
.
 Cont’d

 operating systems :operating systems manage the hardware and create the interface
between the hardware and the user

The operating system provides several essential functions, including:

1. managing the hardware resources of the computer;
2. providing the user-interface components;
3. providing a platform for software developers to write applications.

 All computing devices run an operating system. For personal computers, the most popular operating
systems are Microsoft’s Windows
.
 Cont’d

 application software:
 application software is the category of programs that do
something useful for the user.
 Application software is, essentially, software that allows the user
to accomplish some goal or purpose

 For example, if you have to write a paper, you might use the application-
software program Microsoft Word. If you want to listen to music, you might
use iTunes, To surf the web, you might use Internet Explorer or Firefox. Even
a computer game could be considered application software
 2.3. Databases Management

 A database is an organized collection of related information.

 It is an organized collection, because in a database, all data is
described and associated with other data
 All information in a database should be related as well; separate
databases should be created to manage unrelated information.
-For example, a database that contains information about students should not
also hold information about company stock prices.
 Logical data structure elements

 Character
 A single alphabetic, numeric, or other symbol

 Field or data item

 A field consists of a grouping of related characters. Example:
 the grouping of alphabetic characters in a person’s name form a “name field”
 the grouping of numbers in a sales amount forms a “sales amount field”
 Record
 Is grouping of all the fields used to describe the attributes of an entity

 a record represents a collection of attributes that describe a single instance of an entity .

 Example: payroll record with first name , middle name pay rate etc
 File or table
 A group of related records

 an employee file would contain the records of the employees of a firm.

 Database
 An integrated collection of logically related data elements
 Relational Databases

 Databases can be organized in many different ways, and thus take many
forms. The most popular form of database today is the relational
database
 A relational database is one in which data is organized into one or more
tables. Each table has a set of fields, which define the nature of the data
stored in the table.
 In the example below, we have a table of student information, with each row
representing a student and each column representing one piece of information
about the student.
Cont’d
Logical Data Elements
 Data Resource Management

 Data are a vital organizational resource that need to be managed

like other important business assets. Today’s business enterprises
cannot survive or succeed without quality data about their internal
operations and external environment.

 Data warehousing
 Data Mart
 Data mining etc to meet the information needs of an organization
 Data Warehouse

 A data warehouse stores data that have been extracted from the
various operational, external, and other databases of an
organization.
 DWs are central repositories of integrated data from one or more
disparate sources. They store current and historical data in one
single place that are used for creating analytical reports for workers
throughout the enterprise

 It is a central source of the data that have been cleaned, transformed, and
cataloged so that they can be used by managers and other business professionals
for data mining, online analytical processing, and other forms of business
analysis, market research, and decision support.
 Cont’d

 One important characteristic about the data in a data warehouse is that,

unlike a typical database in which changes can occur constantly, data in
a data warehouse a static, which means that once the data are gathered
up, formatted for storage, and stored in the data warehouse, they will
never change.

 This restriction is so that queries can be made on the data to look for
complex patterns or historical trends that might otherwise go unnoticed
with dynamic data that change constantly as a result of new transactions
and updates

 Finally, a variety of analytical software tools can be provided to query,

report, mine, and analyze the data for delivery via Internet and intranet
Web systems to business end users
Data mart
 A Data mart is a simple form of a data warehouse that is
focused on a single subject (or functional area), hence they draw
data from a limited number of sources such as sales, finance or
marketing.

 Data marts are often built and controlled by a single department

within an organization. The sources could be internal operational
systems, a central data warehouse, or external data
 Generally, data warehouses may be subdivided into data marts ,
which hold subsets of data from the warehouse that focus on
specific aspects of a company, such as a department or a business
process.
Cont’d

01/05/2024
Applications And Data Marts
 Data mining

 Data mining is the process of analyzing data to find previously unknown trends, patterns,
and associations in order to make decisions
 Data mining is a major use of data warehouse databases and the static data
they contain.
 In data mining, the data in a data warehouse are analyzed to reveal hidden
patterns and trends in historical business activity.
 This analysis can be used to help managers make decisions about strategic
changes in business operations to gain competitive advantages in the
marketplace
 Data mining can discover new correlations, patterns, and trends in vast
amounts of business data (frequently several terabytes of data) stored in
data warehouses
 Generally, data mining is accomplished through automated means(data-
mining program ) against extremely large data sets, such as a data
warehouse
 Cont’d

 Some examples of data mining include:

• An analysis of sales from a large grocery chain might determine that
milk is purchased more frequently the day after it rains in cities
with a population of less than 50,000.
• A bank may find that loan applicants whose bank accounts show
particular deposit and withdrawal patterns are not good credit risks.
Cont’d

Generally, Data Mining:

 Provides decision support through knowledge discovery

 Analyzes vast stores of historical business data

 Looks for patterns, trends, and correlations
 Goal is to improve business performance

 Types of analysis
 Regression
 Decision tree
 Neural network
 Cluster detection
 Market basket analysis 01/05/2024
 The Traditional FILE Approach And The Database Approach

 In the traditional file approach Data are organized, stored, and

processed in independent files
 Each business application designed to use specialized data files

containing specific types of data records

 Problems
 Data redundancy

 Lack of data integration

 Data dependence (files, storage devices, software)

 Lack of data integrity or standardization

Traditional File Processing
Database Management Approach : a solution to the File approach
 2-4. Communication Networks

 When personal computers were first developed, they were stand-

alone units, which meant that data was brought into the computer
or removed from the computer via removable media, such as the
floppy disk.
 In the early days of computing, computers were seen as devices
for making calculations and storing data
 Beginning in the mid-1980s, however, organizations began to see
the value in connecting computers together via a digital network
 Cont’d

The term network means an interconnected or interrelated

chain, group, or system.

Using this definition, we can begin to identify all kinds of

networks: a chain of hotels, the road system, the names in a person’s address
book, the railroad system, the members of a church, club, or organization .

The examples of networks in our world are virtually endless, and computer
networks, though both valuable and powerful, are just one example of the concept.
 Internet Vs World Wide Web

 Many times, the terms “Internet” and “World Wide Web,” are used
interchangeably.
 But really, they are not the same thing at all! The Internet is an
interconnected network of networks.
 Many services run across the Internet: electronic mail, voice and
video, file transfers, and, yes, the World Wide Web.
 The World Wide Web is simply one piece of the Internet.
 It is made up of web servers that have HTML pages that are being
viewed on devices with web browsers. It is really that simple
 cont’d

Telecommunications strategic capabilities: business value of the network

Overcome
Overcome Geographic
Geographic Barriers:
Barriers: Capture
Capture information
information about
about
business
business transactions
transactions from
from remote
remote locations.
locations.

Overcome
Overcome Time
Time Barriers:
Barriers: Provide
Provide information
information to
to remote
remote locations
locations
immediately
immediately after
after itit is
is requested.
requested.

Overcome
Overcome Cost
Cost Barriers:
Barriers: Reduce
Reduce the
the cost
cost of
of more
more traditional
traditional
means
means of
of communications.
communications.

Overcome
Overcome Structural
Structural Barriers:
Barriers: Support
Support linkages
linkages for
for competitive
competitive
advantage.
advantage.
Some of the popular use of internet
Internet Applications

Surf and Download and

E-mail Compute

Popular Uses
Transfer
of the
Protocol (FTP)
Internet
E-Commerce and Telnet

Internet Chat
and Search Engines
Discussion Forums
 Types of network:

Geographic coverage:
 Local area network (LAN)

 Metropolitan area network(MAN),

 wide area network(WAN),

Network typology:
bus, star, ring, Mesh, Wireless versus wired Peer to peer versus
per to sever
 Local Area Networks

An LAN is (by definition) a local network, usually operating in the same building
or on the same campus

PC PC PC Shared
Database and
Software Packages

Network
Network
Server
Server
Shared
Printer

PC PC

Internetwork Processor to Other Networks

 Wide Area Networks

When an organization needed to provide a network over a wider area (with locations in
different cities or states, for example), they would build a wide area network (WAN)
Client/Server Networks And Network Computing

Client
Network
Network Host
Host System
System
Server
Server Superserver
Superserver

User Interface
Application Processing Central database control
Application Control Heavy duty processing
Distributed Database

NetPC
Application DB
Server
Server Server
Server
Browser-based
User Interface
Web OS DBMS
Application Software
Network Topologies
 Intranet, extranet and internet
Intranet
 Just as organizations set up web sites to provide global access to information about their

business, they also set up internal web pages to provide information about the organization
to the employees.
 This internal set of web pages is called an intranet. Web pages on the intranet are not

accessible to those outside the company; in fact, those pages would come up as “not found”
if an employee tried to access them from outside the company’s network.
Extranet
 Sometimes an organization wants to be able to collaborate with its customers or suppliers

while at the same time maintaining the security of being inside its own network.
 In cases like this a company may want to create an extranet, which is a part of the

company’s network that can be made available securely to those outside of the company.
 Extranets can be used to allow customers to log in and check the status of their orders, or
for suppliers to check their customers’ inventory level

 The Internet generally allows everyone to access all network resources

 Cloud computing

 Is the practice of using a network of remote servers hosted on the Internet to

store, manage, and process data, rather than a local server or a personal computer

 To understand cloud computing, we first have to understand what the cloud is.
 “The cloud” refers to applications, services, and data storage on the Internet.
These service providers rely on giant server farms and massive storage devices
that are connected via Internet protocols.
 Cloud computing is the use of these services by individuals and organizations.
 Cloud computing is a subscription-based service where you can obtain networked
storage space and computer resources
 You probably already use cloud computing in some forms. For example, if you access your
e-mail via your web browser, you are using a form of cloud computing.
 If you use Google Drive’s applications, you are using cloud computing. While these are
free versions of cloud computing, there is big business in providing applications and data
storage over the web.
 Advantages of Cloud Computing

 No software to install or upgrades to maintain.

 Available from any computer that has access to the Internet.
 Can scale to a large number of users easily.
 New applications can be up and running very quickly.
 Services can be leased for a limited time on an as-needed basis.
 Your information is not lost if your hard disk crashes or your laptop is stolen.
 You are not limited by the available memory or disk space on your computer.
Disadvantages of Cloud Computing
 • Your information is stored on someone else’s computer – how safe is it?

 • You must have Internet access to use it. If you do not have access,

you’re out of luck.

 • You are relying on a third-party to provide these services.
Cont’d
 Cont’d

Take in to account an information system that you are accustomed as

a user or a developer or a manger and identify:
 the information system activities (input processing ,output,
storage, feedback and control)
 the information system resources (hardware, people, data,
network software )
 Characterize the system in terms of its functionalities

 What can you spot about as the limitation of the system