MARXISM A N D S Y M B O L IC

M A N D IT S I M P O R TA N CE IN
INTERACT IO N IS
IO - C U LT U RA L ,
EXAMINING SOC IO N S
I C, A N D P O LI T IC A L C O N D IT
ECONOM

WEEK 6
LESSON 1: MARXISM AND SYMBOLIC
INTERACTIONISM THEORIES
• MARXISM IS COMPLICATED BY THE FACT THAT MARX IS BY
NO MEANS THE ONLY INFLUENCE ON THIS CRITICAL
SCHOOL. INDEED, GIVEN THE VARIOUS SORTS OF POLITICAL
MOVEMENTS THAT HAVE BEEN INSPIRED BY THIS THINKER
(SOCIALISM, TROTSKYISM, COMMUNISM, LENINISM,
STALINISM, MAOISM, RADICAL DEMOCRACY, ETC.), ONE
DESPAIRS AT TRYING TO PROVIDE A FAIR AND LUCID
INTRODUCTION.
 ADD TO THAT THE FACT THAT MARX HIMSELF
CHANGED HIS MIND ON VARIOUS ISSUES OR
SOMETIMES EXPRESSED OPINIONS THAT
APPEAR MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE, AND ONE IS
FACED WITH A RATHER HIGH HURDLE.
NONETHELESS, THERE ARE A NUMBER OF
MARXIST THOUGHTS AND THINKERS THAT
HAVE BEEN ESPECIALLY INFLUENTIAL ON
RECENT SCHOLARLY DEVELOPMENTS
(PARTICULARLY IN LITERARY, CULTURAL,
AND POLITICAL STUDIES).
•IN SHORT, THE GOAL OF THIS
SECTION OF THE GUIDE TO THEORY,
AS WITH ANY OF THE SECTIONS, IS
NOT TO GIVE AN EXHAUSTIVE
ACCOUNT OF THIS CRITICAL SCHOOL
BUT,
• RATHER, TO GIVE A SENSE FOR THE MAJOR
CONCEPTS INFLUENCING THIS APPROACH
WHILE ATTEMPTING TO STAY CONSCIOUS OF
THE VARIOUS WAYS THAT INDIVIDUAL
TERMS HAVE BEEN CONTESTED OVER THE
LAST NUMBER OF DECADES.
MARXISM THEORY ACCORDING TO QUEXBOOK, 2018

• MARXISM IS A SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND ECONOMIC

PHILOSOPHY NAMED AFTER KARL MARX, WHICH
EXAMINES THE EFFECT OF CAPITALISM ON LABOR,
PRODUCTIVITY, AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
AND ARGUES FOR A WORKER REVOLUTION TO
OVERTURN CAPITALISM IN FAVOR OF COMMUNISM.
MARXISM THEORY ACCORDING TO QUEXBOOK, 2018

• FREDRIC JAMESON IS SURELY THE MOST INFLUENTIAL

CONTEMPORARY MARXIST THINKER IN THE UNITED
STATES. HIS OWN ALTERATIONS OF AND DIALOGUE WITH
ALTHUSSER IAN AND LACANIAN THOUGHT HAVE
ESTABLISHED HIM AS AN IMPORTANT INFLUENCE ON THE
RISE OF GLOBALIZATION STUDIES, AN IMPORTANT
CRITICAL SCHOOL OF THE LAST FEW YEARS.
• IN PARTICULAR, HE HAS ATTEMPTED TO MAKE SENSE OF THE
CONTINUING STAYING POWER OF CAPITALISM AND THE
WAYS THAT CAPITALISM HAS TRANSFORMED SINCE MARX
WROTE HIS CRITIQUES IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY,
ADDRESSING SUCH ISSUES AS MULTI-NATIONAL (OR "LATE")
CAPITALISM, THE POWER OF THE MEDIA, AND THE
INFLUENCE OF POSTMODERNITY ON MARXIST DEBATE. THE
LATTERMOST ISSUE IS EXPLORED IN THE JAMESON
MODULES UNDER POSTMODERNISM.
•A CLASS IS A GROUP OF PEOPLE WHO
SHARE SIMILAR CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIFICALLY WITH REGARD TO THEIR
SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS.
 SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS REFERS TO A
PERSON’S STANDING WITH REGARD TO
HIS/HER ACCESS TO RESOURCES,
MONETARY CAPABILITY, INCOME STATUS,
OCCUPATION, AND LIVING SITUATION.
•CLASS CONFLICT (CLASS WARFARE OR
CLASS STRUGGLE) REFERS TO THE
CONFLICT BETWEEN DIFFERENT CLASSES
IN A COMMUNITY THAT IS COMPOSED OF
DIFFERENT SOCIAL OR ECONOMIC
POSITIONS AND OPPOSING INTERESTS.
THE SIX ELEMENTS IN MARX’S VIEW OF CLASS CONFLICT
1. CLASSES ARE AUTHORITY RELATIONSHIPS BASED ON PROPERTY OWNERSHIP.
2. A CLASS DEFINES GROUPINGS OF INDIVIDUALS WITH SHARED LIFE SITUATIONS
AND INTERESTS.
3. CLASSES ARE NATURALLY ANTAGONISTIC BY VIRTUE OF THEIR INTERESTS.
4. IMMINENT WITHIN MODERN SOCIETY IS THE GROWTH OF TWO ANTAGONISTIC
CLASSES AND THEIR STRUGGLE, WHICH EVENTUALLY ABSORBS ALL SOCIAL
RELATIONS.
5. POLITICAL ORGANIZATION AND POWER ARE AN INSTRUMENTALITY OF CLASS
STRUGGLE AND REIGNING IDEAS ARE ITS REFLECTION.
6. STRUCTURAL CHANGE IS A CONSEQUENCE OF THE CLASS STRUGGLE.
VARIABLES THAT DETERMINE CLASS FROM A
MARXIAN PERSPECTIVE
1. CONFLICTS OVER THE DISTRIBUTION OF ECONOMIC REWARDS BETWEEN THE CLASSES
2. EASY COMMUNICATION BETWEEN THE INDIVIDUALS IN THE SAME CLASS POSITIONS SO
THAT IDEAS AND ACTION PROGRAMS ARE READILY DISSEMINATED.
3. GROWTH OF CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS IN THE SENSE THAT MEMBERS OF THE CLASS HAVE
A FEELING OF SOLIDARITY AND UNDERSTANDING OF THEIR HISTORIC ROLE.
4. PROFOUND DISSATISFACTION OF THE LOWER CLASS OVER ITS INABILITY TO CONTROL
THE ECONOMIC STRUCTURE OF WHICH IT FEELS ITSELF TO BE EXPLOITED VICTIM
5. ESTABLISHMENT OF A POLITICAL ORGANIZATION RESULTING FROM THE ECONOMIC
STRUCTURE, THE HISTORICAL SITUATION, AND MATURATION OF CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS.
TWO TYPES OF PEOPLE ACCORDING TO KARL
MARX
•PROLETARIAT IS CONSISTING OF THE WORKING OR
LABOR CLASS.
•BOURGEOISIE IS CONSISTING OF THE
MANAGEMENT CLASS; THOSE WHO OWN THE MEANS
OF PRODUCTION
THE THREE SOURCES OF INCOME
1. OWNERS OF SIMPLE LABOR POWER OR LABORERS
WHOSE MAIN SOURCE OF INCOME IS LABOR.
2. OWNERS OF CAPITAL OR CAPITALISTS WHOSE
MAIN SOURCE OF INCOME IS PROFIT OR SURPLUS
VALUE.
3. LANDOWNERS WHOSE MAIN SOURCE OF INCOME
IS GROUND RENT.
THE THREE LEVELS OF CULTURE MODEL
• INFRASTRUCTURE - POPULATION, BASIC BIOLOGICAL NEED,
AND RESOURCES (LABOR, EQUIPMENT, TECHNOLOGY, ETC.).
• STRUCTURE - PATTERN OF ORGANIZATION (GOVERNMENT,
EDUCATION, PRODUCTION REGULATION, ETC.).
• SUPERSTRUCTURE - SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS (LAW, RELIGION,
POLITICS, ART, SCIENCE, SUPERSTITION, VALUES, EMOTIONS,
TRADITIONS, ETC.).
MARX PROVIDES A TWO-STAGE ARGUMENT FOR
THE LABOR THEORY OF VALUE
• THE FIRST STAGE IS TO ARGUE THAT IF TWO
OBJECTS CAN BE COMPARED IN THE SENSE OF
BEING PUT ON EITHER SIDE OF AN EQUALS SIGN,
THEN THERE MUST BE A ‘THIRD THING OF
IDENTICAL MAGNITUDE IN BOTH OF THEM’ TO
WHICH THEY ARE BOTH REDUCIBLE.
MARX PROVIDES A TWO-STAGE ARGUMENT FOR THE
LABOR THEORY OF VALUE
• SECOND STAGE, WHICH IS A SEARCH FOR THE
APPROPRIATE ‘THIRD THING’, WHICH IS LABOR
IN MARX’S VIEW, AS THE ONLY PLAUSIBLE
COMMON ELEMENT. BOTH STEPS OF THE
ARGUMENT ARE, OF COURSE, HIGHLY
CONTESTABLE.
• MARX CLAIMS THAT NO PREVIOUS THEORIST HAS
BEEN ABLE ADEQUATELY TO EXPLAIN HOW
CAPITALISM AS A WHOLE CAN MAKE A PROFIT.
MARX’S OWN SOLUTION RELIES ON THE IDEA OF
EXPLOITATION OF THE WORKER. IN SETTING UP
CONDITIONS OF PRODUCTION THE CAPITALIST
PURCHASES THE WORKER’S LABOR POWER — HIS
ABILITY TO LABOR — FOR THE DAY.
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
• IS A SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY DEVELOPED FROM
THE WORK OF CHARLES HORTON COOLEY AND GEORGE
HERBERT MEAD IN THE EARLY PART OF THE TWENTIETH
CENTURY (THE ACTUAL NAME OF THE THEORY COMES
FROM HERBERT BLUMER, ONE OF MEAD’S STUDENTS).
ACCORDING TO THIS THEORY, PEOPLE INHABIT A WORLD
THAT IS IN LARGE PART SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED.
EXAMPLES OF SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM IN EVERYDAY LIFE
• AN IMAGE OF A STICK FIGURE WITH A DRESS MEANS WOMAN.
• AN IMAGE OF A STICK FIGURE WITHOUT A DRESS MEANS MAN.
• A DRAWING OF A HEART MEANS LOVE.
• A BALD EAGLE MEANS FREEDOM AND AMERICA.
• A STICK FIGURE SITTING IN A CHAIR WITH A LARGE WHEEL MEANS HANDICAPPED.
• PUTTING YOUR THUMB UP MEANS YES.
• PUTTING YOUR THUMB DOWN MEANS NO.
• SKULL AND CROSSBONES MEAN DANGER.
• A BALANCE SYMBOLIZES JUSTICE.
• THE LONE T SHAPE SYMBOLIZES A CROSS, SPIRITUALITY, OR RELIGION.
• WATER HOLDS THE MEANING OF REBIRTH, VITALITY, OR CLEANSING.
EXAMPLES IN SOCIETY
• SOCIETIESARE FULL OF SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM.
AND YOUR INTERACTIONS ARE DIFFERENT BASED ON
THE SOCIETY IN WHICH YOU LIVE. ADDITIONALLY, MANY
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM EXAMPLES SEEN
THROUGHOUT SOCIETY CAN BE SUBJECTIVE, BASED ON
YOUR EXPERIENCES WITH THAT PARTICULAR SYMBOL.
CHECK OUT A FEW DIFFERENT SOCIETY EXAMPLES OF
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM.
PHILIPPINE FLAG
•A HORIZONTAL FLAG BICOLOR WITH EQUAL BANDS OF ROYAL BLUE AND
CRIMSON RED, WITH A WHITE, EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE AT THE HOIST. IN THE
CENTER OF THE TRIANGLE IS A GOLDEN-YELLOW SUN WITH EIGHT PRIMARY
RAYS, EACH REPRESENTING A PROVINCE OF THE PHILIPPINES. AT EACH VERTEX
OF THE TRIANGLE IS A FIVE-POINTED, GOLDEN-YELLOW STAR, EACH OF WHICH
REPRESENTING ONE OF THE COUNTRY'S THREE MAIN ISLAND GROUPS— LUZON,
VISAYAS (THOUGH ORIGINALLY REFERRING TO PANAY) AND MINDANAO. THE
WHITE TRIANGLE AT THE FLAG REPRESENTS LIBERTY, EQUALITY, AND
FRATERNITY. A UNIQUE FEATURE OF THIS FLAG IS ITS USAGE TO INDICATE A
STATE OF WAR IF IT IS DISPLAYED WITH THE RED SIDE ON TOP, WHICH IS
EFFECTIVELY ACHIEVED BY FLIPPING THE FLAG UPSIDE-DOWN.
GENDER
• GENDER CAN BE UNDERSTOOD THROUGH SYMBOLIC
INTERACTIONISM BECAUSE GENDER IS A SOCIOLOGICAL
CONSTRUCT. FOR EXAMPLE, FOR THE SYMBOLS ATTACHED TO
“MALES” AND “FEMALES”, ACTIONS AND LOOKS ARE BASED ON
WHAT IS BELIEVED IS TRUE FROM YOUR INTERACTIONS RATHER
THAN WHAT IS OBJECTIVELY TRUE. FOR EXAMPLE, WOMEN MIGHT
BE SEEN AS WEAKER THAN MEN. A MAN WEARING A DRESS MIGHT
BE SEEN AS FEMININE. THESE PROBLEMATIC ATTRIBUTES LEAD TO
INEQUALITY AND BIASES SUCH AS WOMEN GETTING PAID LESS
THAN MEN IN THE WORKFORCE.
COLORISM
• RACE AND ETHNICITY IS ANOTHER AREA WHERE SYMBOLIC
INTERACTIONISM COMES INTO PLAY. THIS CAN DEFINITELY
BE SEEN THROUGH THE ISSUE OF COLORISM.
• IN COLORISM, PEOPLE OF THE SAME RACIAL IDENTIFICATION
ARE TREATED DIFFERENTLY BASED ON THE LIGHTNESS OR
DARKNESS OF THEIR SKIN. FOR EXAMPLE, A STUDY BY LANCE
HANNON ON COLORISM DEMONSTRATED LIGHTER-SKINNED
LATINOS "LOOKED" SMARTER ACCORDING TO CAUCASIANS.
RELATIONSHIP ROLES
• SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM PLAYS A BIG ROLE IN
FAMILY AND RELATIONSHIPS. YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF
A WORD OR EVENT CHANGES BASED ON INTERACTIONS
WITH IT. FOR EXAMPLE, IF YOU HAVE A GREAT
RELATIONSHIP WITH YOUR WIFE, THE WORD WIFE WILL
BE POSITIVE. HOWEVER, IF YOUR RELATIONSHIP WITH
YOUR WIFE IS ROCKY, THE MEANING BEHIND THE WORD
AND WHAT A WIFE SYMBOLIZES CHANGES.
RAINBOW
•SOCIETIES’MEANINGS BEHIND SYMBOLS CAN
CHANGE AND MORPH WITH TIME. ONE EXAMPLE
OF THIS IS THE MEANING OF A RAINBOW. THE
RAINBOW HAS BEEN SEEN AS A CHRISTIAN
SYMBOL OF HOPE BUT ANOTHER MEANING OF
RAINBOW IS NOW ASSOCIATED WITH THE LGBTQ
COMMUNITY.
MEANING BEHIND SYMBOLIC INTERACTION

•THE WAY YOU SEE THE WORLD COLORS

YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF IT. LOOK NO
FURTHER THAN SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
TO SEE HOW THIS IS TRUE. INTERESTED TO
EXPLORE MORE ABOUT BEHAVIORS, CHECK
OUT OPERANT CONDITIONING EXAMPLES
 OPERANT CONDITIONING
•OPERANT CONDITIONING IS A LEARNING PROCESS
WHEREBY DELIBERATE BEHAVIORS ARE
REINFORCED THROUGH CONSEQUENCES. IT
DIFFERS FROM CLASSICAL CONDITIONING, ALSO
CALLED RESPONDENT OR PAVLOVIAN
CONDITIONING, IN WHICH INVOLUNTARY
BEHAVIORS ARE TRIGGERED BY EXTERNAL
STIMULI.
OPERANT CONDITIONING AND TIMING
THE CORE CONCEPT OF OPERANT CONDITIONING IS SIMPLE:
WHEN A CERTAIN DELIBERATE BEHAVIOR IS REINFORCED, THAT
BEHAVIOR WILL BECOME MORE COMMON.
PSYCHOLOGY DIVIDES REINFORCEMENT INTO FOUR MAIN CATEGORIES:
• POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
• NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
• PUNISHMENT
• EXTINCTION
 TIMING AND FREQUENCY ARE VERY IMPORTANT IN
REINFORCEMENT
• A CONTINUOUS REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULE (COMMONLY ABBREVIATED
CRF) PROVIDES REINFORCEMENT FOR ALL NOTED BEHAVIORS. THAT IS,
EVERY TIME THE BEHAVIOR OCCURS, REINFORCEMENT IS PROVIDED.
• AN INTERMITTENT REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULE (COMMONLY
ABBREVIATED INT) REINFORCES SOME TARGET BEHAVIORS BUT NEVER
ALL OF THEM. THINK OF IT LIKE A SLOT MACHINE. YOU WON'T WIN ON
EVERY PULL OF THE LEVER, BUT YOU DO WIN SOMETIMES, AND THAT
REINFORCES THE BEHAVIOR OF PULLING THE LEVER.
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
• POSITIVE
REINFORCEMENT DESCRIBES THE BEST-KNOWN
EXAMPLES OF OPERANT CONDITIONING: RECEIVING A
REWARD FOR ACTING IN A CERTAIN WAY.
• MANY PEOPLE TRAIN THEIR PETS WITH POSITIVE
REINFORCEMENT. PRAISING A PET OR PROVIDING A TREAT
WHEN THEY OBEY INSTRUCTIONS -- LIKE BEING TOLD TO SIT
OR HEEL -BOTH HELPS THE PET UNDERSTAND WHAT IS
DESIRED AND ENCOURAGES IT TO OBEY FUTURE COMMANDS.
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
• WHEN A CHILD RECEIVES PRAISE FOR PERFORMING A CHORE
WITHOUT COMPLAINT, LIKE CLEANING THEIR ROOM, THEY
ARE MORE LIKELY TO CONTINUE TO PERFORM THAT CHORE
IN THE FUTURE.
• WHEN A WORKER IS REWARDED WITH A PERFORMANCE
BONUS FOR EXCEPTIONAL SALES FIGURES, SHE IS INCLINED
TO CONTINUE PERFORMING AT A HIGH LEVEL IN HOPES OF
RECEIVING ANOTHER BONUS IN THE FUTURE.
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
•NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT IS A DIFFERENT
BUT EQUALLY STRAIGHTFORWARD FORM OF
OPERANT CONDITIONING. NEGATIVE
REINFORCEMENT REWARDS A BEHAVIOR BY
REMOVING AN UNPLEASANT STIMULUS,
RATHER THAN ADDING A PLEASANT ONE.
EXAMPLES OF NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT

1. AN EMPLOYER OFFERING AN EMPLOYEE A

DAY OFF IS AN EXAMPLE OF NEGATIVE
REINFORCEMENT. RATHER THAN GIVING A
TANGIBLE REWARD, THEY REDUCE THE
PRESENCE OF SOMETHING UNDESIRABLE; THAT
IS, THE AMOUNT OF TIME SPENT AT WORK.
EXAMPLES OF NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
2. IN A SENSE, YOUNG CHILDREN CONDITION THEIR
PARENTS THROUGH NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT.
SCREAMING, TANTRUMS AND OTHER "ACTING OUT"
BEHAVIORS ARE GENERALLY INTENDED TO DRAW A
PARENT'S ATTENTION. WHEN THE PARENT BEHAVES AS THE
CHILD WANTS, THE UNPLEASANT CONDITION - THE
SCREAMING AND CRYING - STOPS. THAT'S NEGATIVE
REINFORCEMENT.
EXAMPLES OF NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT

3. NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT IS COMMON IN THE

JUSTICE SYSTEM. PRISONS WILL SOMETIMES EASE
REGULATIONS ON A WELL-BEHAVED PRISONER, AND
SENTENCES ARE SOMETIMES SHORTENED FOR GOOD
BEHAVIOR. THE LATTER IN PARTICULAR IS CLASSIC
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT: THE REMOVAL OF
SOMETHING UNDESIRABLE (DAYS IN PRISON) IN
RESPONSE TO A GIVEN BEHAVIOR.
PUNISHMENT
• IN PSYCHOLOGY, PUNISHMENT DOESN'T NECESSARILY
MEAN WHAT IT MEANS IN CASUAL USAGE. PSYCHOLOGY
DEFINES PUNISHMENT AS SOMETHING DONE AFTER A
GIVEN DELIBERATE ACTION THAT LOWERS THE CHANCE OF
THAT ACTION TAKING PLACE IN THE FUTURE. WHEREAS
REINFORCEMENT IS MEANT TO ENCOURAGE A CERTAIN
BEHAVIOR, PUNISHMENT IS MEANT TO DISCOURAGE A
CERTAIN BEHAVIOR.
EXAMPLES OF PUNISHMENT

1. AN EMPLOYEE WHO MISSES WORK MAY

SUFFER A CUT IN WAGES. THE LOSS OF INCOME
(AN UNDESIRED CONSEQUENCE) CONSTITUTES
THE PUNISHMENT FOR MISSING WORK (AN
UNDESIRED BEHAVIOR).
EXAMPLES OF PUNISHMENT
2. A SHARP "NO!" ADDRESSED TO A PET
ENGAGING IN UNACCEPTABLE BEHAVIOR IS A
CLASSIC EXAMPLE OF PUNISHMENT. THE
SHOUT PUNISHES THE PET, CONDITIONING IT
TO AVOID DOING WRONG BEHAVIOR IN THE
FUTURE.
EXAMPLES OF PUNISHMENT

3. PUNISHMENTS ARE COMMONLY

USED IN LAB EXPERIMENTS. MOST
OFTEN, A LAB ANIMAL IS PUNISHED
FOR A GIVEN BEHAVIOR WITH A MILD
ELECTRIC SHOCK.
 EXTINCTION
• PSYCHOLOGY DEFINES EXTINCTION AS THE LOSS OF
CONDITIONING OVER TIME WHEN THE CONDITIONING
STIMULI ARE NO LONGER PRESENT. OVER TIME, AN
ANIMAL (OR PERSON) WILL BECOME LESS
CONDITIONED UNLESS THE STIMULI THAT
CONDITIONED THEM IN THE FIRST PLACE IS REAPPLIED.
EXAMPLES OF EXTINCTION
1. AN EMPLOYEE PUNISHED ONCE FOR
MISSING WORK, THEN NEVER AGAIN, MAY
BECOME MORE LIKELY TO MISS WORK
LATER ON BECAUSE THEY NO LONGER
EXPECT TO BE PUNISHED FOR ABSENCE.
EXAMPLES OF EXTINCTION
2. ANIMALS OFTEN TEST THE LIMITS OF THEIR
CONDITIONING. FOR INSTANCE, A CAT PUNISHED WITH A
SPRAY BOTTLE EVERY TIME IT CLIMBS ON A COUNTER MAY
COME NEAR THE COUNTER OR JUMP ON THE COUNTER WHEN
IT BELIEVES NO ONE IS AROUND. IF NO PUNISHMENT
OCCURS, THE CAT IS LIKELY TO KEEP JUMPING ON THE
COUNTER BECAUSE THE CONDITIONING AGAINST IT IS
EXTINCT.
EXAMPLES OF EXTINCTION
3. IN SCHOOL, IF A STUDENT RECEIVES A GOLD STAR
FOR AN EXCELLENT TEST SCORE BUT DOES NOT
RECEIVE MORE GOLD STARS IN SUBSEQUENT TESTS,
HE MAY BECOME INCREASINGLY UNMOTIVATED TO
PERFORM WELL IN FUTURE TESTS. THE OPERANT
CONDITIONING OF THE POSITIVE BEHAVIOR (DOING
WELL ON A TEST) IS BECOMING EXTINCT.
B.F. SKINNER AND CONDITIONING
• BURRHUS FREDERIC SKINNER WAS A PSYCHOLOGIST AND
RESEARCHER CREDITED WITH ESTABLISHING THE
PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT CONDITIONING. B.F. SKINNER
BEGAN WITH THORNDIKE'S LAW OF EFFECT, WHICH STATES
THAT BEHAVIORS THAT CAUSE SATISFACTORY RESULTS
WILL BE REPEATED. SKINNER CONSIDERED SATISFACTION
TO BE INSUFFICIENTLY SPECIFIC TO MEASURE AND SET OUT
TO DESIGN A MEANS OF MEASURING LEARNED BEHAVIORS.
• THE OPERANT CONDITIONING CHAMBER, POPULARLY
KNOWN AS A SKINNER BOX, WAS HIS SOLUTION. HE KEPT
HIS TEST SUBJECTS, PRIMARILY PIGEONS AND RATS, IN
CIRCUMSTANCES THAT ALLOWED HIM TO CLOSELY
OBSERVE THEIR BEHAVIOR. HE WOULD ISOLATE THE
ANIMAL AND EVERY TIME THE ANIMAL PERFORMED A
DEFINED BEHAVIOR, LIKE PUSHING A LEVER, IT'D BE
REWARDED WITH FOOD. WHEN THE ANIMAL BEGAN TO
RELIABLY PUSH THE LEVER, HE'D KNOW IT HAD BEEN
CONDITIONED.
•SKINNER'S WORK TOOK THAT FIRST PRINCIPLE
AND APPLIED IT TO HUMAN BEHAVIOR,
REPRESENTING THE SCHOOL OF PSYCHOLOGY
CALLED BEHAVIORISM. BEHAVIORISM DEFINED
MUCH OF PSYCHOLOGY FOR THE SECOND HALF
OF THE 20TH CENTURY BUT IS CURRENTLY BEING
COMBINED WITH OTHER PSYCHOLOGICAL
PERSPECTIVES.
OPERANT CONDITIONING AND YOU
• IT CAN BE UNCOMFORTABLE TO TALK ABOUT HUMAN
BEHAVIOR IN THE CLINICAL LANGUAGE OF PSYCHOLOGY.
THAT SAID, OPERANT CONDITIONING DESCRIBES A SIMPLE
PHENOMENON THAT HAPPENS IN EVERY PART OF LIFE. IT'S
JUST ONE OF THE MECHANISMS BY WHICH PEOPLE LEARN.
IT'S VITAL TO UNDERSTAND HOW THAT MECHANISM
WORKS TO MAKE SURE IT WORKS BEST FOR YOU.