1.

2 Ultrastructure of cells
Essential idea: Eukaryotes have a much more
complex cell structure than prokaryotes.

The background image above is an electron micrograph of pancreatic exocrine cells. It

clearly shows the complex structures present in eukaryote cells.

By Chris Paine
http://medcell.med.yale.edu/systems_cell_biology_old/liver_and_pancreas/images/exocrine
_pancreas_em.jpg https://bioknowledgy.weebly.com/
 1.2 Ultrastructure of cells
Essential Idea: Eukaryotes have a much more
complex structure than prokaryotes.

The background image above is an electron micrograph of pancreatic

exocrine cells. It shows the complex structures in eukaryotic cells.
Understandings, Applications and Skills
Statement Guidance
1.2.U1 Prokaryotes have a simple cell structure without
compartmentalization.
1.2.U2 Eukaryotes have a compartmentalized cell
structure.
1.2.U3 Electron microscopes have a much higher
resolution than light microscopes.
1.2.A1 Structure and function of organelles within
exocrine gland cells of the pancreas and within
palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf.
1.2.A2 Prokaryotes divide by binary fission.
1.2.S1 Drawing of the ultrastructure of prokaryotic cells Drawings of prokaryotic cells should show the
based on electron micrographs. cell wall, pili and flagella, and plasma
membrane enclosing cytoplasm that contains
70S ribosomes and a nucleoid with naked
DNA.

1.2.S2 Drawing of the ultrastructure of eukaryotic cells Drawings of eukaryotic cells should show a
based on electron micrographs. plasma membrane enclosing cytoplasm that
contains 80S ribosomes and a nucleus,
mitochondria and other membrane-bound
organelles are present in the cytoplasm.
Some eukaryotic cells have a cell wall.
1.2.S3 Interpretation of electron micrographs to identify
organelles and deduce the function of specialized
cells.
1.2.U3 Electron microscopes have a much higher resolution than light microscopes.

Resolution is defined as the shortest distance between two points that can be distinguished

• Light microscopes are limited in resolution by the

wavelengths of visible light (400–700 nm).
• Electrons have a much shorter wavelength (2 – 12 pm)
therefore electron microscopes have a much higher
resolution
• Light microscopes are usually limited to 1000x because,
due to the resolution, nothing is gained by increasing
the magnification – try zooming in on an image on your
laptop or phone after a certain point there is no benefit
to zooming in as the image becomes pixelated

resolution
Millimetres Micrometres Nanometres
(mm) (μm) (nm)
Human eye 0.1 100 100,000

Light 0.0002 0.2 200

microscopes
Electron 0.000001 0.001 1
microscopes
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Electron_Microscope.jpg
1.2.U3 Electron microscopes have a much higher resolution than light microscopes.

Ultrastructure is all the structures of a

biological specimen that are at least 0.1nm in
their smallest dimension

• Light microscopes allow us to see the structure of cells

• Electron microscopes allow us to see the ultrastructure of
cells, such as these pancreatic exocrine cells
• Electron microscopes can see viruses (0.1μm diameter) , but
light microscopes cannot

http://medcell.med.yale.edu/systems_cell_biology_old/liver_and_pancreas/images/exocrine_pancreas_em.jpg
1.2.U1 Prokaryotes have a simple cell structure without compartmentalization.
1.2.U1 Prokaryotes have a simple cell structure without compartmentalization.

Ultrastructure of E. coli as an example • E. Coli is a model organism

of a prokaryote used in research and
teaching. Some strains are
toxic to humans and can
cause food poisoning.

• We refer to the cell

parts/ultrastructure of
prokaryotes rather than use
the term organelle as very
few structures in
prokaryotes are regarded as
organelles.

http://www.tokresource.org/tok_classes/biobiobio/biomenu/metathink/required_drawings/index.htm
1.2.A2 Prokaryotes divide by binary fission.

Prokaryotes reproduce asexually using the process of

binary fission
• The DNA is replicated semi conservatively [2.7.U1]
• The two DNA loops attach to the membrane
• The membrane elongates and pinches off
(cytokinesis) forming two separate cells
• The two daughter cells are genetically identically
(clones)
http://youtu.be/vTzH1P3aQjg
• Binary fission is also used by some organelles in
eukaryotes [links to 1.5.U3]

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Binary_Fission.png
http://cronodon.com/images/Bacteria_dividing_3b.jpg
1.2.S1 Drawing of the ultrastructure of prokaryotic cells based on electron micrographs.
1.2.S1 Drawing of the ultrastructure of prokaryotic cells based on electron micrographs.

w a n d la b e l fe atures you
ra
Warning: only d p u t structures in
e e – d o n ’t
can clearly s y s h ou ld be there.
in k th e
because you th
1.2.S1 Drawing of the ultrastructure of prokaryotic cells based on electron micrographs.
1.2.U2 Eukaryotes have a compartmentalized cell structure.

There are several advantages in being

compartmentalized:
• Efficiency of metabolism - enzymes and substrates
can localized and much more concentrated
• Localised conditions - pH and other such factors
can be kept at optimal levels. The optimal pH level
for one process in one part of the cell
• Toxic / damaging substances can be isolated, e.g.
digestive enzymes (that could digest the cell itself)
are stored in lysosomes
• Numbers and locations of organelles can be
changed dependent on the cell’s requirements.

http://medcell.med.yale.edu/systems_cell_biology_old/liver_and_pancreas/images/exocrine_pancreas_em.jpg
1.2.U2 Eukaryotes have a compartmentalized cell structure.

This is a good drawing,

but the nucleus should
membrane and small po show a double
res (gaps) in the membr
ane.
1.2.U2 Eukaryotes have a compartmentalized cell structure.

Vesicle
membrane
sac
containing
proteins
ready for
secretion

This drawing is a bette

r diagram, but lack a sc
ale bar.

http://www.tokresource.org/tok_classes/biobiobio/biomenu/eukaryotic_cells/liver_cell_500.jpg
1.2.A1 Structure and function of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas
and within palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf.

Nucleus
• Generally spherical with a double membrane
• Pores (holes) are present in the membrane
• Contains genetic information in the form of
chromosomes (DNA and associated histone
proteins)
• Uncoiled chromosomes are referred to as
chromatin – they stain a dark colour and are
concentrated at the edges of the nucleus
• mRNA is transcribed in the nucleus (prior to
use in protein synthesis in the cytoplasm)
• mRNA leaves the nucleus via the pores
(DNA is too large to move through the pores)

http://courses.lumenlearning.net/biology/wp-content/uploads/sites/5/2014/02/Figure_03_03_05.jpg
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Micrograph_of_a_cell_nucleus.png
1.2.A1 Structure and function of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas
and within palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf.

The Mitochondrion (pl. Mitochondria)

• Has a double membrane
• A smooth outer membrane and a folded
inner membrane
• The folds are referred to as cristae
• Variable in shape
• Site of ATP production by aerobic respiration
(if fat is used as a source of energy it is
digested here)
Mitochondria in mammalian lung cells

http://ibguides.com/images/biology_figure_8.1.2_mitochondrion.png

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mitochondria,_mammalian_lung_-_TEM.jpg
1.2.A1 Structure and function of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas
and within palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf.

Free ribosomes
• 80S Ribosomes
(approx. 20nm
diameter) - larger
than the ribosomes
found in prokaryotes
• No membrane
• These appear as dark
granules in the
cytoplasm
• Synthesizes proteins
to function in the
cytoplasm, for use
within the cell, e.g.
enzymes

http://www.cc.kochi-u.ac.jp/~tatataa/genetics/Q2013/ribosome2.jpg
1.2.A1 Structure and function of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas
and within palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf.

The Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (rER)

• The consists of flattened membrane sacs, called
cisternae
• Often located near to the nucleus
• 80S Ribosomes are attached to the outside of
the cisternae are ribosomes
• rER synthesizes proteins which are transported,
by vesicles, to the golgi apparatus for
modification before secretion outside the cell

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

• no ribosomes present
• we are not studying this structure it
this course
Need a simple diagram
1.2.A1 Structure and function of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas
and within palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf.

The Golgi apparatus

• This organelle also consists of flattened
membrane sacs called cisternae, like rER.
• Different to rER:
o No attached ribosomes
o Often sited close to the plasma membrane
o The cisternae are shorter and more curved
that those of the rER
• The Golgi apparatus processes (modifies)
proteins from from the rER. The proteins are
then repackaged in vesicles for secretion
outside the cell.

Need a simple diagram

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:C_Golgi.jpg
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Golgi_in_the_cytoplasm_of_a_macrophage_in_the_alveolus_(lung)_-_TEM.jpg
1.2.A1 Structure and function of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas
and within palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf.

Vesicles
• A single membrane with fluid inside
• Very small in size
• Used to transport materials inside of a cell

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:C_Golgi.jpg
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Golgi_in_the_cytoplasm_of_a_macrophage_in_the_alveolus_(lung)_-_TEM.jpg
1.2.A1 Structure and function of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas
and within palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf.
ANI
MA
Flagellum (Flagella pl.) LS ONL
• Thin projection (usually singular) from the Y*
cell surface.
• Contain microtubules
• Used to move the cell

*Mature plant cells do not possess possess cilia and flagella, but some
plant gametes are motile and do have them. This is not a common
occurrence and you would not be expected to know about this.
http://medicine.utah.edu/surgery/andrology/images/P29SERIES2-4.JPG
 1.2.A1 Structure and function of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas
and within palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf.
ANI
MA
Cilia LS ONL
• Thin projections from the cell surface. Y*
• Contain microtubules
• Used to either move the cell or to move the
fluids next to the cell

*Mature plant cells do not possess possess cilia and flagella, but some
plant gametes are motile and do have them. This is not a common
occurrence and you would not be expected to know about this.
http://cache1.asset-cache.net/gc/139809475-shows-cilia-pseudostratifed-structure-goblet-gettyimages.jpg?v=1&c=IWSAsset&k=2&d=ut2a821i%2BSbReC5nXMMSneS7x9HksglF
3dCo8uKSNT1EglzTjjv58OvCiQSlcyy0
1.2.A1 Structure and function of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas
and within palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf.

Microtubules
• Small cylindrical fibres called microtubules
• Have a variety of functions, e.g. part of the
structure of flagella and they play a role in cell
division

Centrioles
• Consist of two groups of nine triple
microtubules
• Are mainly found in animal cells, not present in
vascular plants or fungi.

https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSrrSOHTtgbp2fiBrTjBtL1sBOhi0i5z0pf4oWpQ9EdTqr_-IN9OQ
1.2.A1 Structure and function of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas
and within palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf.
PLA
Chloroplast NTS
ONL
• Many, but not all, plant cells contain chloroplasts Y
• A double membrane surrounds the chloroplast
• Inside are stacks of thylakoids
• Each thylakoid is a disc composed of a flattened
membrane
• The shape of chloroplasts is variable but is usually
ovoid
• The site of photosynthesis and hence where glucose
is produced.
• Starch grains maybe present if photosynthesis is
happening quickly

https://benchprep.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/chloroplast2.jpg
http://www.biology.arizona.edu/biochemistry/problem_sets/photosynthesis_1/graphics/chloroplast.GIF
1.2.A1 Structure and function of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas
and within palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf.
PLA
NTS
ONL
Cell wall Y
• an extracellular component not an organelle.
• secreted by all plant cells (fungi and some
protists also secrete cell walls).
• Plant cell walls consist mainly of cellulose which
is:
o Permeable - does not affect transport in
and out of the cell
o Strong – gives support to the cell and
prevent the plasma membrane bursting
when under pressure
o Hard to digest –resistant to being broken
down, therefore lasts along time without
the need for replacement/maintenance

http://www.oncoursesystems.com/images/user/9341/10845583/01-03_PlantCell(L-Large).jpg
1.2.S2 Drawing of the ultrastructure of eukaryotic cells based on electron micrographs.

Draw a pancreas exocrine

cell from the image below.
You should be able to
label the following
structures:
• plasma membrane
• mitochondria
• rER
• Nucleus
• Secretory granules
(dark spheres)

http://medcell.med.yale.edu/systems_cell_biology_old/liver_and_pancreas/images/exocrine_pancreas_em.jpg
1.2.S2 Drawing of the ultrastructure of eukaryotic cells based on electron micrographs.
Draw a single
palisade
mesophyll cell
from the image
below. You should
be able to label
the following
structures:
• cell wall
• plasma
membrane
• chloroplasts
• vacuole
• nucleus
• cytoplasm
• mitochondria

http://www.lifesci.sussex.ac.uk/home/Julian_Thorpe/TEM19.htm
1.2.S3 Interpretation of electron micrographs to identify organelles and deduce the
function of specialized cells.
1.2.S3 Interpretation of electron micrographs to identify organelles and deduce the
function of specialized cells.
1.2.S3 Interpretation of electron micrographs to identify organelles and deduce the
function of specialized cells.
What organelles can you identify? Think about the role of the
organelles that occur most common and deduce the function of
the cell.
1.2.S3 Interpretation of electron micrographs to identify organelles and deduce the
function of specialized cells.
What organelles can you identify? Think about the role of the
organelles that occur most common and deduce the function of
the cell.

Evidence & conclusions:

• Nucleus present
• No cell wall – this is an animal cell
• rER is present and dominates the cell – lots of protein product
is made for secretion
• Lots of mitochondria – the synthesis of protein requires enegy
– this a metabolically active cell
• Lots of secretory granules/vesicles near the inside border
• Likely to be a cell that specializes in secreting a protein product,
possibly a hormone or enzyme

• Is in fact: a mammalian exocrine secretory cell from the

pancreas
1.2.S3 Interpretation of electron micrographs to identify organelles and deduce the
function of specialized cells.
What organelles can you identify in the top most layer of cells?
Think about the role of the organelles that occur most common
and deduce the function of the cell.

http://bcrc.bio.umass.edu/histology/files/images/Pseudostratified%20Columnar%20Ciliated%20Epithelium1.jpg
1.2.S3 Interpretation of electron micrographs to identify organelles and deduce the
function of specialized cells.
What organelles can you identify in the top most layer of cells?
Think about the role of the organelles that occur most common
and deduce the function of the cell.

Evidence & conclusions:

• Nucleus present
• No cell wall – this is an animal cell
• Cells closely packed – does not allow infiltration of substances
from the lumen
• Has a cilia dominated ‘brush border’ adjacent to a lumen – cilia
are moving fluids in the lumen
• Likely to be a protective layer of cells that actively sweep fluids
away from the surface

• Is in fact: ciliated epithelial cell from a mammalian lung

http://bcrc.bio.umass.edu/histology/files/images/Pseudostratified%20Columnar%20Ciliated%20Epithelium1.jpg
1.2.S3 Interpretation of electron micrographs to identify organelles and deduce the
function of specialized cells.
What organelles can you identify? Think about the role of the
organelles that occur most common and deduce the function of
the cell.

http://www.vcbio.science.ru.nl/images/tem-plant-cell.jpg
1.2.S3 Interpretation of electron micrographs to identify organelles and deduce the
function of specialized cells.
What organelles can you identify? Think about the role of the
organelles that occur most common and deduce the function of
the cell.

Evidence & conclusions:

• Cell wall present – must be a plant cell
• No chloroplasts – must be found inside the stem or in the roots
• Vacuoles relatively small – the cell does not have a storage,
transport or support function
• Nucleus relatively large / cell size small – likely to be a new cell
recently undergone mitosis
• Possibly recently divided cell tissue from a plant root

Is in fact: a plant cell found at the root-tip

http://www.vcbio.science.ru.nl/images/tem-plant-cell.jpg
• A cell has cytoplasm, a cell wall, naked DNA and
ribosomes. Based on this information, what type of
cell could this be?
• A. A cell from a pine tree
• B. A grasshopper cell
• C. A human red blood cell
• D. A bacterium
• (Total 1 mark)
Multichoice
• If a mitochondrion has a length of 5 µm and a
student’s drawing of the mitochondrion is 10 mm,
what is the magnification of the drawing?
• A. ×0.0005
• B. ×0.5
• C. ×200
• D. ×2000
• (Total 1 mark)
Short Answer
Essay Style
• a) Draw a labelled diagram showing the ultra-
structure of a liver cell.(4)
• (b) Distinguish between prokaryotic cells and
eukaryotic cells.(6)
• (c) Outline one therapeutic use of stem cells. (6)