What is GIS?

• Geographic
Science of place & space, which
describes the Earth
• Information
Knowledge, description, facts
• Systems
capture, store, manipulate,
analyze, manage and present
 1. Basics of Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
1.1 Definition

• A Geographic Information System can be defined as:

"A system of computer hardware,

software and procedures designed to
support the capture, management,
analysis, modeling and display of
geographically referenced data for
decision making and solving complex
planning and management problems. It is
a way in which to begin to represent
and model the real world."
 …Cont’d
• A geographic information system is
a computer-based system that
provides four sets of capabilities
to handle geo-referenced data:
• 1) Input,
• 2) Data Management,
• 3) Manipulation and Analysis,
• 4) Output.
 GIS is not......
simply a computer system for
• .....

making maps, although it can

create maps at different scales, in
different projections, and with
different colors.
• Simply an analytical tool.
 Main function of GIS

• Capture
• Store
• Query
• Analyze
• Display
• Produce Output
Components of GIS
 Computer Hardware

Computer Hardware
• A processor with sufficient power to run the
software;
• Sufficient memory for the storage of large
volumes of data;
• A good quality, high-resolution colour
graphics screen; and
• Data input and output devices (for example,
digitizers, scanners, keyboard, printers and
plotters).
 Computer software
• The GIS software includes the programs and
the user interface for driving the hardware.
• GIS software is essential to input, generate,
store, transform, analyze, manipulate and
display geographic information or data.
• A good GIS software requires user
friendliness, functionalities, compatibilities,
updatability, documentation, cost
effectiveness.
 GIS software
The following is a list of GIS software producers and their main products.
• Environmental Systems Research Institute ( ESRI ): ArcInfo,
ArcView.
• Autodesk: AutoCAD Map
• Clark Labs: IDRISI
• International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth
Sciences: ILWIS
• Mapinfo Corporation: Mapinfo.
• Bentley Systems: Microstation.
• PCI Geomatics: PAMAP
• TYDAC Inc. : SPANS
 Data
• Data is the most important component of
a GIS.
• A GIS can integrate spatial data with
other existing data resources, often
stored in a DBMS.
• The integration of spatial and tabular
data stored in a DBMS is a key
functionality afforded by GIS.
 People

• GIS technology has limited value without the

people who manage and develop plan for
applying it to real world problems.
• GIS user range from technical specialists who
design and maintain the system to those who
use it to help them perform their everyday
work.
 Procedure(analysis, methods )

• How the data will be retrieved, input into the system,

stored, managed, transformed, analyzed, and finally
presented in a final output.

• The transformation processes includes such tasks as adjusting

the coordinate system, setting a projection, correcting any
digitized errors in a data set, and converting data from
vector to raster or raster to vector.
 1.3. GIS Subsystems
A GIS has four main functional subsystems.
These are:-
• A data input subsystem
• A data storage and retrieval subsystem
• A data manipulation and analysis subsystem
and
• A data output and display subsystem
 GIS Subsystems…

Data Input
• Allows the user to capture , collect , and
transform spatial and thematic data into
digital form.
• The data inputs are usually derived from a
combination of hard copy maps, aerial
photographs , remotely sensed images,
reports, survey documents etc.
 Data storage and retrieval

• Organizes data, spatial and attribute, in a

form which permits it to be quickly
retrieved by the user for analysis and
permits accurate updates to be made to
the database.
• This component usually involves use of a
database management system (DBMS)
for maintaining attribute data.
 Data manipulation and analysis
• The data manipulation and analysis
subsystem allows the user to define and
execute spatial and attribute
procedures to generate derived
information.
• This subsystem is commonly said to be
the heart of a GIS.
 Data output

• allows the user to generate graphic

displays, normally maps, and tabular
reports representing derived
information products.
 1.4. The Purpose of GIS
• to represent real-world geographies in a structured,
digital format that permits users to create, edit,
manipulate, display, analyze, and output data.

• If what you do involves managing information, and that

information can be linked to geographic locations,
then GIS can help you organize that information so
that you can make new discoveries and get more out of
the information you have.

• Geographic information systems let you visualize your

information in new ways that reveal relationships,
patterns, and trends not visible with other popular
systems.
 The Purpose of GIS…
Using GIS:
1. Users can interrogate geographical features displayed
on a computer map and retrieve associated attribute
information for display or further analysis.

2. Maps can be constructed by querying or analyzing

attribute data.

3. New sets of information can be generated by performing

spatial operations (such as polygon overlay) on the
integrated data set.

4. Different items of attribute data can be associated

with Map information
 GIS is a useful tool to help…
• Make better decisions through increased knowledge
provided by the capability to perform more complex and
what-if analysis to understand the consequences of
decisions.
• Consider more alternatives because of the speed with
which additional and more complex management
alternatives can be analyzed.
• Increase data quality by using the data checking
capabilities inherent in a GIS.
• Identify incomplete, inconsistent, and redundant data
using the capabilities of the GIS.
• Better share the databases for discussion with
interested groups. They can access and analyze the
same data used by GIS specialists.
 GIS Provide:
1. Quick and easy access to large volumes of data.
2. The ability to:
– Select detail by area or theme;
– Link or merge one data set with another;
– Analyze spatial characteristics of data;
– Search for particular characteristics or features in
an area;
– Update data quickly and cheaply; and
– Model data and assess alternatives.
3. Output capabilities (maps, graphs, address lists and
summary statistics) tailored to meet particular needs.
 Why use GIS instead of a paper map?

• GIS stores all the information about

map features
• Strong because it's flexible. You can
add new themes, delete old ones;
separate themes to create more themes,
or combine themes if they have a common
characteristics.
• GIS reflects the world as it changes,
so your maps are as current as your
information.
 Questions a GIS Can Answer

• There are five generic questions that a

sophisticated GIS can answer.
1. Location: What is at a given location?
– what exists at a particular location. A
location can be described as a place name,
address, etc.
2. Condition: Where does something occur?
– A location where certain conditions are
satisfied (e.g., an unforested section of
land at least 2,000 square meters in size,
within 100 meters of a road, and with soils
suitable for supporting buildings).
 Questions…
3. Trends: What has changed since ...?
– to find the differences within an
area over time.
4. Patterns: What spatial patterns exist?
– the residential density within
walking distance of your downtown.
5. Modeling: What if ...?
– "What if ..." questions are posed to
determine what happens, for example,
if a new road is added to a network.
 CHAPTER 2
2. Spatial Data and Geographic Information
Systems
• All Geographical Information Systems are computer
representations of some aspect of the real world.

• The simplified view of the world adopted by GIS is often

termed a model. A model is ‘a synthesis of data’.

• There is a clear distinction between data and information.

2.1. Data Types : Spatial and Attribute
GIS technology utilizes two basic types of
data .These are:
1. Spatial Data: Describes the absolute and
relative location of geographic features.
2. Attribute Data (often referred to as tabular
data).
Describes characteristics of the spatial features.
These characteristics can be quantitative
and /or quantitative in nature.

27
 Spatial Data-Simplifying
Spatial data are the data related to objects that
occupy space:
A lake, river, creek, ocean, …
A highway, freeway, …
A business center, …
A school, …

A mountain, hill , …

A forest, wood , big garden, …

28
 Simplifying Spatial Data
Airports – Points
Spatial data / objects must
be Simplified and defined
before they are stored in
Roads – Lines
the computer.

A common way of
simplifying spatial data is to
break down all geographic Soils – Polygons
features in to 3 basic entity
types: Points, Lines & Areas
(Polygons). 29
 Spatial Data and...

• Data are observations we make from monitoring the

real world.
• Data are collected as facts or evidence that may be
processed to give them meaning and turn them into
information.
• Information is data with meaning and context
added.
• GIS place great emphasis on turning data in to
information, which in turn, assists our understanding
of geographic phenomena.
The distinction between data and information and information and knowledge.

• Data are the raw or unprocessed observations from any kind of survey.
• Information is data that has undergone analysis making explicit the
relationships between objects.
• Knowledge is evidence gained through the scientific process of verification
and repeatability that can be used for prediction of events or distributions
• Data is of little use unless transformed in to information
• Information is an answer to questions based on raw data
• Data is transformed in to information through information system
 Spatial Data
• Spatial Data are characterized by information about
position, connections with other features and
details of non- spatial characteristics.

• Spatial data must be Simplified before they can be

stored in the computer.

• A common way doing this is to break down all

geographic features in to 3 basic entity type.
 Spatial Data…

• An entity is a component or building block

used to help data organization.

• These are points, lines and areas.

• These representations of real- world

phenomena are normally held in a GIS according
to one of two models-raster or vector.
 Spatial Entities
• The method chosen to represent a spatial feature
using point, line and area depends on the scale used.
Example.
• On a world map a city can be represented by a point.
• However at national and regional scales a
cartographer would choose to represent the cities
using areas.
• At local scale the cartographer may choose to build
up a representation a city using a mixture of point,
line and area entities.
 Geographic Phenomenon

• Geographic phenomenon is a manifestation of an

entity or process of interest that can be:

1. Named or described
2. Georeferenced, and
3. Assigned a time (interval) at which it is/
was present
 Cont’d…

A geographical entity is defined in

terms of:
– Location (spatial reference)
– Dimensions
– Attribute
– Time
 Different types of Geographic Phenomena

• Some are manifested everywhere others

in certain location
1. Geographic Field
• Continuous
• Discrete
2. Geographic objects
3. Boundary
 1. Geographic fields

• A field is a geographic phenomenon that has a value

‘every where’ in the study area.
• A field can be discrete or continuous.
1.1. Continuous Field- Mathematically smooth
– Values do not change abruptly
– Changes are gradual E.g. T0, Pr, Soil salinity,
Elevation
– Can be differentiable (Using a measure of
change per unit distance) E.g.Slope
 1. 2. Discrete Fields- non-continuous fields

• Cut- up the study space in mutually exclusive,

bounded parts
• Location in one part has the same value.
• E.g. Elevation with overhanging cliff, land classification
• Are a step from continuous fields to geographic
objects
• Both Discrete fields and objects make use of bounded
features but Discrete field still assigns a value to
every location in the study area
Continuous field

Discrete field
 2. Geographic Objects

• When geographic phenomenon is not present

everywhere in the study area but somehow
‘sparsely’ populates it.

• Distinguished and named

Geographic Object
 Objects cont’d…
• Their position is determined by a
combination of one or more of the
following parameters
1. Location (Where)
2. Shape (What form)
3. Size (How big)
4. Orientation (Direction facing)
• Purpose determines which of the 4 parameters is
required to represent it.
• E.g. In-car navigation system
– location is relevant
– Shape, size and orientation are irrelevant
• Roads- location (Where begins and ends)
– Shape (how many lanes)
– Size (How far can one travel on it)
– Orientation (In w/h direction can one travel) seem to
be relevant
 3. Boundaries

• Where shape and/or size of contiguous areas

matter, the notion of boundary comes in to play.
• The concept of boundary works for geographic
objects and constituents of a discrete geographic
fields.
• Known boundary determines location, shape and
size.
• .
 Types of Boundaries
1. Crispy Boundary
– determined with almost arbitrary
precision, depending on data
acquisition technique.

– More common in man-made

phenomena
2. Fussy Boundary
• the boundary is not a precise line, but rather itself an
area of transition.
• More common with natural phenomena.
• In day-to-day GIS use these techniques are
neither often supported nor often needed.
• E.g. Geological Boundary- though vaguely bounded
in reality, applying crisp boundary doesn’t affect the
usefulness of the data since it doesn’t require high
positional accuracy of boundaries.
 Question?

How can we store

Geographical data?
 2.2. Spatial Data Models
• are approaches for storing
the spatial location of
geographic features in a
database.
 What is vector data format?
• A representation of the world using
points, lines, and polygons.
• Vector models are useful for storing
data that has discrete boundaries,
such as country borders, land parcels,
and streets.
 Vector Data Formats
• Vector storage implies the use of vectors
(directional lines) to represent a
geographic feature.
• Vector data is characterized by the use of
sequential points or vertices to define a
linear segment.
• Each vertex consists of an X coordinate and
a Y coordinate.
• Vector lines are often referred to as arcs
and consist of a string of vertices
terminated by a node.
 Vector Feature Types:

– Points
• The fundamental building
block
– Lines
• Built from at least two points
at the ends of the line: the
nodes
– Polygons
• A closed object with an
interior and exterior
• Build from one or more lines
• May have islands
 Vector Data Terminology
• Points: features defined by a single x/y
coordinate
• Vertices: points defining a line feature
• Nodes: vertices representing the start and
end of a line feature (topologic vector model)
• Polyline: feature comprised of a series of
straight line segments or mathematical curves
• Polygon: feature represented by a “closed”
series of polylines (a.k.a. “areas”)
Vector Data Format(shape file)
 Vector Data Representations

• Spaghetti Data Model

– Collected data but not structured
– Digitized, redundant data, not directly used
• Topological Model
– Stores spatial relationships b/n graphical elements.
• Triangulated Irregular Network(TIN)
– Represent the terrain surface as a set of
interconnected triangular facets
 VECTOR DATA DVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES
Vector Data - Advantages :
• Data can be represented at its original resolution and form
without generalization.
• Graphic output is usually more aesthetically pleasing
(traditional cartographic representation);
• Since most data, e.g. hard copy maps, is in vector form no data
conversion is required.
• Accurate geographic location of data is maintained.
• Allows for efficient encoding of topology, and as a result more
efficient operations that require topological information, e.g.
proximity, network analysis.
 Vector Data - Disadvantages:

• The location of each vertex needs to be stored explicitly.

• For effective analysis, vector data must be converted into a
topological structure. This is often processing intensive and
usually requires extensive data cleaning.
• As well, topology is static, and any updating or editing of the
vector data requires re-building of the topology.
• Continuous data, such as elevation data, is not effectively
represented in vector form. Usually substantial data
generalization or interpolation is required for these data layers.
• Spatial analysis and filtering within polygons is impossible
PLUS overlay is a bit difficult to do
 Raster data model
• A representation of the world as a surface
divided into a regular grid of cells.
• Raster models are useful for storing data
that varies continuously, as in an aerial
photograph, a satellite image, a surface of
chemical concentrations, or an elevation
surface.
 Raster Data Format

• The use of a grid-cell data structure where the

• geographic area is divided into cells identified by
row and column.
• is commonly called raster.
• A data layer, e.g. forest inventory stands, may be
broken down into a series of raster maps(attribute
type)
• e.g. a species map, a height map, a density map,
etc. These are often referred to as one attribute
maps.
Raster Data Format
 Raster Data Representations

• Raster Data compression

– Refers to the reduction of raster data volumes.
• Run-length Encoding
– The same values are treated as a “run”
– Records the cells by row and by group
– Each group includes a cell value and the number
of cells with that value.
– If all cells in a row contain the same value, only
one group is recorded, hence save computer
memory.
 Quad tree Data Representation
• Uses recursive decomposition to
divide a grid into a hierarchy of
quadrants.
• A single land-use type represented by
a single cell.
• More than one land-use type, the map
is subdivided in to four.
 Quad… cont’d
• A quadrant having cells with the same value
will not be sub-divided, and it is stored as a
leaf node.
• Leaf nodes are coded with the value
homogeneous quadrant.
• A quadrant having different cell values will
be subdivided until a quadrant at the finer
level contains only one value.
 Raster Data - Advantages :

• Other than an origin point, e.g. bottom left

corner, no geographic coordinates are stored.
• Data analysis is usually easy to program and
quick to perform.
• Discrete data, e.g. forestry stands, is
accommodated equally well as continuous
data, e.g. elevation data, and facilitates the
integrating of the two data types.
• compatible with raster-based output devices,
e.g. electrostatic plotters, graphic terminals.
 Raster Data - Disadvantages:
• It is especially difficult to adequately represent
linear features depending on the cell resolution.
Accordingly, network linkages are difficult to
establish.
• Processing of associated attribute data may be
cumbersome if large amounts of data exists.
• Raster maps inherently reflect only one
attribute or characteristic for an area.
• Since most input data is in vector form, data
must undergo vector-to-raster conversion.
(increased processing requirements)
 2.4. ATTRIBUTE DATA MODELS

• A separate data model is used to store and

maintain attribute data for GIS software.
• A variety of different data models exist for the storage
and management of attribute data. The most common
are:
• Tabular
• Hierarchical
• Network
• Relational
• Object Oriented
 1. Tabular Model
• The simple tabular model stores
attribute data as sequential data
files with fixed formats.

• This type of data model is outdated

in the GIS.

• It lacks any method of checking data

integrity.
 2. Hierarchical Model
• Data is structured downward in a
hierarchy (in a tree structure) of
tables.
• Any level in the hierarchy can have
unlimited children, but any child can
have only one parent.
• Hierarchical DBMS have not gained
any noticeable acceptance
 3. Network Model
• The network database organizes
data in a network structure.
• This model allows for children to
have more than one parent.
• Network DBMS have not found
much more acceptance in GIS
than the hierarchical DBMS.
 4. Relational Model
• The relational database organizes data in
tables.
• Each table, is identified by a unique table
name,
• Columns store the values for a specific attribute
• Rows represent one record (a separate spatial
feature) in the table.
• Data is often stored in several tables. Tables can
be joined to each other by common columns,
identification number, primary key.
• The relational DBMS is attractive because of its:
• simplicity - in organization and data modeling.
• flexibility - data can be manipulated in an ad
hoc manner by joining tables.
• efficiency of storage - by the proper design of
data tables redundant data can be minimized;
and
• The relational DBMS has emerged as the dominant
commercial data management tool in GIS
implementation and application.
 5. Object-Oriented Model
• The object-oriented database model manages
data through objects.
• An object is a collection of data elements and
operations that together are considered a
single entity.
• The object-oriented database is a relatively
new model.
 2.5. SPATIAL DATA RELATIONSHIPS

• to understand spatial data relationships, the

accepted theoretical solution is to
topologically structure spatial data.

• a topologic data model provides an effective

mathematical foundation for encoding spatial
relationships, providing a data model for
manipulating and analyzing vector based
data.
• the topological structure is used to store the spatial
data, while the relational database structure is used
to store the attribute data.
• Data from both structures are linked together for use
through unique identification numbers, e.g. feature
labels and DBMS primary keys.
• A label is required so that the user can load the
appropriate attribute record for a given geographic
feature.
 2.6. TOPOLOGY
• Deals with spatial properties that do not change
under certain transformations.
• Structure data based on the principles of feature
adjacency and feature connectivity.
• It is a mathematical method used to define spatial
relationships.
• Used for vector based data manipulation and
analysis functions.
• most software offerings record the topological
definition in three tables.
 …Cont’d
• Assume you have some features that are
drawn on a sheet of rubber
• Now, take the sheet and pull on its edges, but
do not tear or break it.
• The features will change in shape, distance
among and size.
• But Some properties, however, do not change:
 …cont’d

• area E is still inside area D,

• the neighborhood relationships between A, B, C, D, and E
stay intact, and their boundaries have the same start and end
nodes, &
• the areas are still bounded by the same boundaries, only the
shapes and lengths of their perimeter have changed.
 2.7. DATA ACCURACY AND QUALITY

1. Accuracy
• Accuracy is the closeness of results of observations
to the true values or values accepted as being true.
• There are positional and attribute accuracy.
• Positional accuracy is the expected deviance in the
geographic location of an object from its true ground
position.
• There are two components to positional accuracy.
These are relative and absolute accuracy.
• Attribute accuracy is equally as important as
positional accuracy.
 2. Quality
• Quality can simply be defined as the fitness for use
for a specific data set.
• Data that is appropriate for use with one application
may not be fit for use with another.
• It is fully dependant on the scale, accuracy, and
extent of the data set, as well as the quality of other
data sets to be used.
• The recent U.S. Spatial Data Transfer Standard (SDTS)
identifies five components to data quality
definitions. These are :
• Lineage A. Lineage
• Positional Accuracy • is concerned with historical and
compilation aspects of the data
• Attribute Accuracy such as the:
• Logical Consistency – source of the data;
• – content of the data;
Completeness
– data capture specifications;
– geographic coverage of the data;
B. Positional Accuracy – compilation method of the data,
consideration of e.g. digitizing versus scanned;
• Inherent (source) error – transformation methods applied
• Operational to the data; and
(introduced)error – the use of algorithms during
compilation, e.g. feature
generalization.
C. Attribute Accuracy
– the reliability, or level of purity (homogeneity), in a
data set.
D. Logical Consistency
– These are referred to as spatial or topological errors.
E. Completeness
– holes in the data, unclassified areas, and eliminated
data.
3. Error
• Inherent error is error in source documents and data.
• Operational error is error produced through data
capture and manipulation functions of a GIS.
 Possible sources of operational errors include:

– Mis-labelling of areas on thematic maps;

– misplacement of horizontal (positional) boundaries;
– human error in digitizing
– classification error;
– GIS algorithm inaccuracies; and
– human bias.
• Error always exists in any scientific process.
• Try to manage error than attempt to eliminate it.
• Validity of decisions is directly related to the quality and
reliability rating of the product.
 Guidelines on the Recognition and Assessment of
Error in GIS

• Developing error statements for data contained within GIS

• Data integrated from different sources yield data of
questionable accuracy.
• The accuracy is dependent the source products, and on user
requirements, such as scale, method and resolution of data
encoding.
• Accuracy of the data decreases as spatial resolution becomes
more coarse
• As the number of layers in an analysis increases, the number
of possible opportunities for error increases
 CHAPTER 3
3. DATA SOURCES AND PROCESSES
3.1. Sources of Data
• Digital data is the most expensive part of the GIS.
• 60 to 80 % of the cost in GIS lies in data acquisition, data
compilation and database development.
• The most common sources for spatial data are:
– hard copy maps; aerial photographs;
– Remotely-sensed imagery; existing digital data files.
– point data samples from surveys;
• Hard copy maps, the most popular source for any GIS project.
• Government agencies are an excellent source of data.
 3.2. DATA INPUT TECHNIQUES

• There are at least four basic procedures

for inputting spatial data into a GIS.
These are:
1. Manual digitizing;
2. Automatic scanning;
3. Entry of coordinates using coordinate
geometry
4. Conversion of existing digital data.
 1. Manual digitization
• Two Methods:
– Onscreen digitization
– Using digitizer tablet
 2. Automatic Scanning

• capture spatial features from a map at a rapid rate of

speed.
• are not viable alternative (Scanners are expensive) .
• have limitations on capturing of selected features,
e.g. text and symbol recognition.
• scanned data requires a substantial amount of
manual editing to create a clean data layer.
 Other practical limitations of scanners

• Unable to move Some hard copy maps.

• Hard copy data may not be in a form that is viable for
effective scanning, e.g. maps are of poor quality, or
are in poor condition;
• Geographic features may be too few on a single map
to make it practical, cost-justifiable, to scan;
 C. Coordinate Geometry

• It involves entering, from survey data, the explicit

measurement of features from some known
monument.
• It is very costly and labour intensive.
• Is more appropriate for land records management at
the cadastral or municipal scale.
 D. Conversion of Existing Digital Data

• The most common digital data to be used in a GIS is

data from CAD systems.
• A number of data conversion programs exist, mostly
from GIS software vendors, to transform data from
CAD formats to a raster or topological GIS data
format.
 3.3. ORGANIZING DATA FOR ANALYSIS

3.3.1.Organizing Data for Analysis

• Help to optimize the convenience and efficiency with which
they can be used.
• In most GIS software data is organized in themes as data
layers.
• This approach allows data to be overlaid based on analysis
requirements.
• Most often, the spatial and attribute data may be entered at
different times and linked together later.
• The clear identification of the requirements for any GIS
project is necessary before any data input procedures, and/or
layer definitions, should occur.
 3.3.2. Spatial Data Layers- Vertical Data Organization

• This approach allows data to be input as separate

themes and overlaid based on analysis requirements.
• This concept is also used to logically order data in
most GIS software.
• The terminology may differ between GIS software.
These include themes, coverage, layers, levels,
objects, and feature classes.
• These must be identified before the project is started.
• The definition of data layers is fully dependent on the
area of interest and the priority needs of the GIS.
• Often a data layer is completely loaded, e.g.
– graphic conversion, − editing,
– topological building, − attribute conversion,
– linking, and − verification, before the next
data layer is started.
• It can become very confusing if many layers are
loaded at once.
• Based on the data model, e.g. vector or raster, and
the topological structure, selected data analysis
functions could be undertaken.
The user needs analysis performs several
functions including:
• identifying the users;
• educating users with respect to GIS
needs;
• identifying information products;
• identifying data requirements for
information products;
• prioritizing data requirements and
products; and
• determining GIS functional
requirements.
 3.4. EDITING AND UPDATING OF DATA

• The ability to add, manipulate, modify, and delete both spatial

features and attributes (independently or simultaneously).
• Updating involves more than the simple editing of features.
• Updating implies the resurvey and processing of new
information.
• The lengthy time span is due to the intensive task of data
capture and input.
• Periodic data updates are required. These frequently involve
an increased accuracy and/or detail of the data layer.
• Commonly the data update process is a result of a physical
change in the geographic landscape.
 3.5. DATA RETRIEVAL AND QUERYING

• Data retrieval involves the capability to easily select data for

graphic or attribute editing, updating, querying, analysis
and/or display.
• Querying is the capability to retrieve data, usually a data
subset, based on some user defined formula.
• Many GIS software offerings have attempted to standardize
their querying capability by use of a Standard Query
Language (SQL).
• Using SQL, GIS software can interface to a variety of
different external relational DBMS packages.
• This has direct implications if the organization has an
existing DBMS