intro
CHARACTER FORMATION, NATIONALISM
AND PATRIOTISM
What is Character?
From Latin “Character” and Greek “kharakter” which means “engraved
mark”-character is the way someone thinks, feels, and behaves
someone’s personality.
-is one of the attributes or features that make up and distinguish an
individual or the complex of mental and ethical traits marking and often
individualizing a person, group or nation.
FORMATION
is an act of giving form or shape to something or of taking form. (Merriam-webster)
is a purposive an conscious process that brings about the development of an individual
into a peculiar thing or shape.
formation could also be understood as molding an object to a desired shape or
appearance.
In education, mentors train their students simulating the expected profession or career of
the latter after completing their degree or educational program. (Delizo,2020)
Character Formation
character formation is defined as a positive, purposeful activity and conscious process
that brings about the development of an individual into a particular thing or shape.
EXAMPLE:
A student who studies for long hours for how many weeks in a row during exams.
Beyond any knowledge they gain from that experience, it can transform their capacity
to focus and direct their efforts towards a goal.
Character Education
it is a learning process that enables students and adults in a school
community to understand, care about and act on core values such as
respect, justice, civic virtue and citizenship, and responsibility for self
and other.
MORAL
from Old French moral (14c.)
and directly from Latin
moralis meaning, proper
behavior of a person in
society,
Morals are principles and
values based on what a
person or society believes are
the right, proper or
acceptable ways of behaving..
concerned with the principles
of right and wrong behavior
and the goodness or badness
of human character.
VALUES
of a person or group are the moral
principles and beliefs that they think
are important in life and that they
tend to live their lives by such
values as guiding principles.
Cambridge Dictionary (n.d.) define
values as "the principles that help
you to decide what is right and
wrong, and how to act in various
situations".
Ethics
According to Legal Information Institute (2022), "the word "ethics" is derived from the Greek
word ethos (character),
Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that "involves systematizing,
defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior"
(without "s") may have originated "late 14c., ethik «study of morals,»>
and from the Latin word mores (customs). Together, they combine to define how individuals
choose to interact with one another.
In analysis, the words character, morals, ethics, and values are inter-related. In fact, those
words are almost synonymous with one another. They are all referring to what is moral, dutiful,
right, holy, and good manners and conduct and the like.
Values Education
refers to the aspect of the educational practice which entails that moral or political values as
well as norms, dispositions and skills grounded in those values are mediated to or developed
among students."
Values education is also said to be similar to ethics. Accordingly, "ethics and values education
(EVE) applies to all aspects of education which either explicitly or implicitly relate to ethical
dimensions of life and are such that can be structured, regulated and monitored with
appropriate educational methods and tools"
DEPED defines values education as "the process by which values are formed in the learner
under the guidance of the teacher and as he interacts with this environment"
BIBLICAL ORIGIN OF CHARACTER FORMATION
Many psychologists and social scientists have written and
published their own concepts of right living, moral uprightness, and
accepted conducts. Some claim that ethical or good personality is
inherent or innate to every human. A good number of them assert that
ethical personality is learned or is a result of one's upbringing,
education, training, and experiences. This also means that one's
character or will to do what is moral is dependent on his environment.
However, considering that ethics and values emphasize holy, upright,
righteous, and moral living, there is actually someone who causes all
these things. The one who has all these attributes is the origin and
author of all good deeds - that is God who is mentioned in the Holy
Bible. God is the only one perfect, righteous, holy, and moral.
NATION
"the word is derived from the Latin verb nasci (meaning to be born) and its noun form,
nation (connoting breed or race)."
it states that nation is traceable in "c. 1300, nacioun, "a race of people, large group of
people with common ancestry and language,"
directly from Latin nationem (nominative natio) "birth, origin; breed, stock, kind, species;
race of people, tribe," literally "that which has been born,"
According to Oxford Languages (n.d.-a), it refers to "a large body of people united by
common descent, history, culture, or language inhabiting a particular country or
territory."
On the other hand, Cambridge Dictionary (n.d.) refers to a nation as "a country, esp.
when thought of as a large group of people living in one area with their own
government, language, and traditions."
The word nation is also referring to "a country considered as a group of people with the
same language, culture and history, who live in a particular area under one
government" (Oxford Learner's Dictionary, n.d.)
B.NATION, COUNTRY, AND STATE
The words "nation", "country", and "state" are seemingly synonymous with each other.
In layman's understanding, these three words are used interchangeably. However, considering the
etymology of the term "nation", nation is distinct from country and state.
Nation -as earlier defined pertains to a
1.
group of people having commonalities in race, history, culture, and language.
2. Country
according to Oxford Languages (n.d.) refers to "a nation with its own
government, occupying a particular territory."
For Merriam-Webster (n.d.), country pertains to "the land of a person's birth,
residence, or citizenship [or] a political state or nation or its territory.
"Britannica (n.d.) which states that a country refers to "an area of land that is
controlled by its own government.
State
politically and socially defined as a country or nation having its own people, own
government, own territory, and sovereignty.
state refers to "a politically organized group of people usually occupying a definite
territory."
state as "a politically organized body of people usually occupying a definite
territory."
"a political division of a body of people that occupies a territory defined by
frontiers.
Nation-State
is defined as a form of political organization under which a relatively homogeneous people
inhabits a sovereign state"
"an independent political state formed from a people who share a common national
identity (historically, culturally, or ethnically); (more generally), any independent political
state."
With the above definition of nation-state, Japan and Korea are nation-state
because they fit definition of having a homogenous people. These two
countries are composed of groups of people having one culture (mono-
culture), one language (mono-language), and common history. On the other
hand, the Philippines could not qualify as a nation-state if cultures and
languages are to be considered because the Philippines is composed of multi-
culture, multi-language, and multi-ethnic people. In matters of common racial
origin and common history, the Philippines can be considered a nation-state.
Nationalism
a. It refers to "identification with one's own nation and support for its interests,
especially to the exclusion or detriment of the interests of other nations or advocacy
of or support for the political independence of a particular nation or people" (Oxford
Languages, n.d.)
b. According to Britannica (n.d.-a, para. 1), nationalism pertains to "ideology based on
the premise that the individual's loyalty and devotion to the nation-state surpass
other individual or group interests."
c. The word also refers to the "loyalty and devotion to a nation especially a sense of
national consciousness exalting one nation above all others and placing primary
emphasis on promotion of its culture and interests as opposed to those of other
nations or supranational groups" (Merriam-Webster, Online, n.d.).
Concept of Nationalism
Nationalism is an ideology that holds that a nation is the fundamental unit for human social
life, and takes precedence over any other social and political principles. Nationalism typically
makes certain political claims based upon this belief: above all, the claim that the nation is the
only fully legitimate basis for a state, that each nation is entitled to its own state, and that the
borders of the state should be congruent with the borders of the nation. Nationalism refers to
both a political doctrine and any collective action by political and social movements on behalf of
specific nations. Nationalism has had an enormous influence upon world history, since the
nation-state has become the dominant form of state organization.Most of the world's
population now lives in states which are, at least nominally, nation-states. Historians also use
the term "nationalism" to refer to this historical transition, and to the emergence of
nationalist ideology and movements.
TYPES OF NATIONALISM
There are various types of nationalism. It can be typified depending on its focus and
emphasis.
A.Anticolonial Nationalism -refers to “the first time that a group of people who had
previously been treated as not part of nation began to see themselves as equal members of a
community” (Go & Watson, 2019)
B.Civic Nationalism is “a relatively liberal form of nationalism in which the nation is defined
by it’s shared values and commitment to civic democracy rather than its bloodlines or
ethnicity” (Drew,2023).
C.Creole Nationalism or Criollo, nationalism refers to “the ideology that emerged in
independence movements among the criollos (descendants of the European colonizers)
especially in Latin America in the early 19th century”
D.Cultural Nationalism is a form of nationalism in which “the nation is defined by a shared
culture rather than by ethnic heritage. Typically, cultural nationalists seek to promote and
preserve the culture of their nation, often through the promotion of traditional values and
the arts” (Drew, 2023)
D.Cultural Nationalism is a form of nationalism in which “the nation is defined by a shared
culture rather than by ethnic heritage. Typically, cultural nationalists seek to promote and
preserve the culture of their nation, often through the promotion of traditional values and
the arts” (Drew, 2023)
E.Economic Nationalism is a school of thought that favors the protection of a nation’s
economy over globalization (Drew, 2023)
F.Ethnic Nationalism is the most overtly racist of all forms of nationalism. It is the belief that
a nation should be ethnically homologous. (Drew,2023)
G.Expansionist Nationalism “holds that a nation should expand its territory by force. It
advocates for annexing neighboring countries and settling it’s people on that land through
the process of colonization” (Drew, 2023)
H.Gendered and Muscular Nationalism "Feminist critique interprets nationalism as a
mechanism through which sexual control and repression are justified and legitimized, often
by a dominant masculine power. The gendering of nationalism through socially constructed
notions of masculinity and femininity not only shapes what masculine and feminine
participation in the building of that nation will look like, but also how the nation will be
imagined by nationalists" (Sikata Banerjee (2003) as cited by Wikipedia).
H.Gendered and Muscular Nationalism "Feminist critique interprets nationalism as a
mechanism through which sexual control and repression are justified and legitimized, often by
a dominant masculine power. The gendering of nationalism through socially constructed
notions of masculinity and femininity not only shapes what masculine and feminine
participation in the building of that nation will look like, but also how the nation will be
imagined by nationalists" (Sikata Banerjee (2003) as cited by Wikipedia).
I.Left-wing Nationalism tends to hold that "left-wing and socialist ideals are necessary in order
to preserve a nation's unique identity from the imperialist and capitalist ambitions of other
nations" (Drew, 2023). Left-wing nationalism or leftist nationalism, also known as social
nationalism (Schwarzmantel, 2006 as cited by Wikipedia, n.d.-c), "is a form of nationalism
based upon national self-determination, popular sovereignty, national self-interest, and left-
wing political positions such as social equality".
J.Liberal Nationalism holds that "a nation-state should preserve Western values including
liberalism and democracywithin its borders, often by enacting illiberal policies to achieve this
goal" (Drew, 2023).
K. Liberation Nationalism is "a political ideology that emerged in the mid-20th century in
response to the decolonization process. Liberation nationalists argue that each nation has
the right to self-determination and should be free from the control of foreign powers"
(Drew, 2023)
L.Linguistic Nationalism is "the idea that a nation should be defined by a common
language. This is in contrast to other forms of nationalism, which may place more emphasis
on a shared culture or ethnicity" (Drew, 2023)
M.National Conservatism "believes in preserving traditional values and institutions such as
the family, religion, and the nation-state. They also tend to support a strong military and an
aggressive foreign policy" (Drew, 2023).
N.National Socialism, "often shortened to Nazism, is a political ideology that rose to
prominence in Germany during the early twentieth century" (Drew, 2023)
O.Nativist Nationalism is a type of nationalism "similar to creole or territorial types of
nationalism, but which defines belonging to a nation solely by being born on its
territory(Oezger Dindar, 2009 as cited by Wikipedia, n.d.-d).
Pandemic Nationalism According to Mylonas and Whalley (2022), "During the pandemic, a
nationalist human calculus has prevailed. Solidarity has been extended to co-nationals but
has been less forthcoming beyond that point. All states have responded by turning inward.
Border closures have been at the heart of mitigation efforts from the very beginning and
lockdowns legitimated and often enforced through national and patriotic discourses."
Pandemic nationalists are those who supported the lockdown to reduce the massive effect
of the Covid-19.
Q.Pan-Nationalism is a type of nationalism that "transcends national boundaries to envision
nations based on ethnic background. It aims to undermine and re-draw the boundaries of
nations" (Drew, 2022).
R.Religious Nationalism is the idea that "a nation should be defined and unified by a shared
religion" (Drew, 2023). Grzymala-Busse (2019) defined religious nationalism as the "fusion of
religious and national identities and goals." Juergemsmeyer (, 1993, p. 40), on the other
hand, defined the term as "the attempt to link religion and the nation-state."
S.Romantic Nationalism "advocated the return of a nation to an imagined past when the
nation was supposedly more idealistic than it is today. It also often takes the form of an
emotional attachment to iconic symbols, such as historic buildings or traditional dress"
(Drew, 2023).
T.Sports Nationalism - The FIFA World Cup and FIBA World Cup as well as other sports and games
"command worldwide audiences as nations battle for supremacy and the fans invest intense
support for their national team. Increasingly people have tied their loyalties and even their
cultural identity to national teams" (Jarvie and Vamplew, 1993) as cited by Wikipedia, n.d.). In
case of the Filipinos, they are united whenever their National Team in basketball or their boxing
icons are competing.
U.Territorial Nationalism describes a form of nationalism "based on the belief that all inhabitants
of a particular territory should share a common national identity, regardless of their ethnic,
linguistic, religious, cultural and other differences"(Straehle, & Kymlicka, n.d., as cited by
Wikipedia, n.d.).
V.Third World Nationalism Nationalists feelings are the outcome of opposition to colonial rule to
survive and maintain a domestic identity.
W.Diaspora Nationalism Diaspora is an ethnic population residing outside their traditional
homelands. In this type of nationalism there is a nationalist sense,e.g. the Irish in the United
States, the Jews in the United states and elsewhere, etc.
X.Stateless Nationalism on the basis (e.g. the Catalans and Basques in Spain) an ethnic or cultural
minority within a nation-state aims independence.
F.Definition of Patriotism
PATRIOTISM - similar to the word nationalism, patriotism can be better understood
after having a clear understanding of its root word "patriot".
1. Patriot
a. According to (Oxford Learner's Dictionary, n.d.), the word patriot came in the "late 16th
cent. (in the late Latin sense): from French patriote,
from late Latin patriota 'fellowcountryman',
b. "from Greek patrios, meaning "of one's father," patriot entered English via French
patriote-meaning
"fellow countryman" or "compatriot"-during a time of political unrest in western Europe that
was characterized by infighting among fellow countrymen-especially among those of the
Protestant and Catholic faiths."
c.For Oxford Languages (n.d.), it defines patriot as "a person who vigorously supports their
country and is prepared to defend it against enemies or detractors."
d.Further, Merriam-Webster (n.d.) refers to a patriot as "a person who loves his or her
country and is ready to boldly support and defend it."
With the above premises, any individual can be a patriot as long as he or she
is willing to support and defend his/her country.
According to Euben (2006, p. 307), "to be a patriot is first of all to love one's
country, and then to be committed to advancing its interests in various ways,
by defending it against attack or working to help it prosper."
Patriotism
as a noun, patriotism means "devoted love, support, and defense of one's country;
national loyalty." Dcitionary.com (2022, para. 5) further asserted that patriotism "often
brings to mind people directly involved with the defense of a nation, namely military
service members as well as state and local government representatives." (Dictionary.com
(2022, para. 4)
As to when the word patriotism came out Dictionary.com (2022, para. 8) stated that it is
"first recorded in the early 1700s. Interestingly, by the 1770s, the word patriot could refer
to 'a member of a resistance movement, a freedom fighter specifically those who fought
against the British in the war for independence-associations that persist today"
Dictionary, com (2022, para. 9) further stated that "patriotism is based on patriot, which is
recorded in the 1500s. This word ultimately derives from Greek patri tēs, "fellow-
countryman lineage member." The root of this word. in turn, means fatherland." Paternal,
patriarchy, and Own father are related." even English's
Patriot
a. According to (Oxford Learner's Dictionary, n.d.), the word patriot came in the "late 16th
cent. (in the late Latin sense): from French patriote, from late Latin patriota 'fellow
countryman', from Greek patriotes, from patrios of one's fathers', from patris 'fatherland'."
b. Merriam-Webster dictionary, (n.d.) writes that the word patriot came "from Greek patrios,
meaning "of one's father," patriot entered English via French patriote-meaning
"fellow countryman" or "compatriot"-during a time of political unrest in western Europe that
was characterized by infighting among fellow countrymen-especially among those of the
Protestant and Catholic faiths."
c.For Oxford Languages (n.d.), it defines patriot as "a person who vigorously supports their
country and is prepared to defend it against enemies or detractors."
d.Further, Merriam-Webster (n.d.) refers to a patriot as "a person who loves his or her
country and is ready to boldly support and defend it." there.
Concepts of Patriotism -
There are various concepts or notions about patriotism. For Altıkulaç (2016), he stated in
his research that 'social psychologists emphasize patriotism's main characteristics as
loyalty, love and individual's desire of being a part of a community
(Bar-Tal and Staub, 1997). Nathanson (1997, as cited by Altikulac) said that there are "4
main components which are,
a. a special affection towards one's country;
b. defining himself or herself through his or her country;
c. being interested in country's welfare;
d.and sacrificing for the sake of country's welfare.
However, Primoratz and Pavković (2007, p. 3) stated that patriotism is not only defined
by one's "special concern for the political, economic, and cultural wel-being of the patria
[country fatherland]." Patriotism, in its ethical side, is also manifested with one's deep and
sincere concern with his/her country's "moral well-being: [that is -to bel concerned that its
policies, laws, and institutions be just and humane.
Types of Patriotism
New world encyclopedia (n.d., para. 4-5) listed two types of patriotism:
Personal Patriotism-
“is emotional and voluntary in which the patriot adheres to certain patriotic values, such as respect for
the flag or the honoring of veterans. Enlisting in the military, doing public service, and sincerely exercise
political obligations are examples of personal patriotism”.
Official Patriotism
“has a high symbolic and ceremonial content. It derives legitimacy from being the expression of the
common good of the political community. Further, official patriotism is often highly regulated by
protocol, with specific methods for handling flags, or specific pledges and displays of allegiance.”
BLIND AND CONSTRUCTIVE PATRIOTISM (Staub, 2010)
Blind Patriotism
“an attachment to country that is characterized by unquestioning
-
acceptance of it’s policies and practices and questioning allegiance with a pledge
of supporting one’s country riight or wrong.” A good example of this are the
Russians who are fighting for their country in support of invading some parts of
Ukraine.
Constructive Patriotism
- “combines attachment, love of country, with the capacity and willingness to
question, criticize, and work for change.” Constructive patriots are those who are
not hesitant to question wrong policies of their government.
Value-based and Ego-centric Patriotism (Primoratz (2002) as cited by Samsu (2022) )
Values- Based
refers to a patriot’s love for his country due to his country having certain privileges
and great achievements. The value-based patriots’ loyalty is dependent on what
privilege and opportunities they get from their country. Primoratz added that once their
could no longer provide for those previleges and benefits, the loyalty of the value-based
patriots wanes. Hence, these patriots are materialistic, superficial and insincere.
Ego-centric Patriotism
The ego-centric patriotism on the otherhand “is seen better compared to value-
based patriotism because of it’s principle which leads to a patriot’s love for his
country because it is his country, not because of the importance, merit or certain
achievements obtained by his country. It can be said that ego-centric patriotism is
unconditional and sincere expression of patriotism.
Inclusive Patriotism and Exclusive Patriotism (Reich (2016)
Inclusive Patriotism
“prides itself on giving hope and refuge to those around the world who are most
desperate. This means that the American inclusive patriots spouses liberty and tolerance and
welcome other foreign nationals who needs help to reside in the country.
Exclusive Patriotism
“By contrast, exclusive patriotism asserts a unique and superior “Americanism” that’s
determined to exlude others beyod our (their) borders”. Hence, exclusive patriots are not
welcoming and not generous.
Oldenquist (1982,pp. 173-193) identified three types of patriotism:
”first, impartial patriotism, appealing only to universal principles and it arises from the
demands of wider loyalties;
second, sports patriotism, similarly affirming universal principles, valid for each “particular
team” and this patriotism arises from pressure to universalized patriotic judgements; and
third, loyalty patriotism is considered the real patriotism which is similar to loyalty to one’s
family. Nation is moral community whose members are bound together by a common good that
is not instrumental.”
Symbolic patriotism-in wartime, it is intended to raise morale, in turn contributing to the war
effort.
Peacetime Patriotism- Cannot be so easily linked to a measurable gain for the state, but the
patriot does not see it as inferior.
Levels of patriotism vary across time, and among politicall communities.
Typically, patriotic intensity is higherwhen the state is under external threat.
OTHER TYPES OF PATRIOTISM
a. Constitutional Patriotism - This thinking was developed by Habermas (2001), as cited by
Horvat, 2020). Further, Horvat (2020) stated that constitutional patriotism "reaffirms
political principles of democratic procedures; instead on identity, it focuses on an inclusive
model of belonging; and instead on territorially defined state, it invests its moral energies
into public sphere." Soltan (2008), explains that this type of patriotism is
"a form of political loyalty combining a commitment to universal principles with a love of
object of loyalty and with a special connection to a constitution."
b. Robust Patriotism - believe that the loyalty should be to one's country and people; but
this does not mean that they will support any government in her country (Sachdave, 2020).
c. Deflated Patriotism - This type of patriotism arose from one's debt of gratitude to
his/her country. Gratitude because his/her country provided life, liberty, language, and
identity (Ahmad,2019).
d. Moderate Patriotism - Nathanson (2020) described this type of patriotism "combines a
special concern for one's country with some level of concern for people in other countries. . . .
[it] also promotes the country's well-being, but it only approves
of means that are consistent with the rights of people in other countries."
e. Ethical Patriotism - According to Primoratz et al (2015 as cited by Hernandez (2015)), this
type of patriotism "focuses on the country's moral record and the implementation of just
and humane laws" and that patriotism is a moral duty.
f. Extreme Patriotism - Nathanson (2020) described extreme patriotism as having much
"concern for one's own country and no concern for others, ... [And it] sets the highest
importance on promoting the country’s interests and well-being while rejecting any
constraints. Nathanson (2020) further explained that in this types of patriotism, only the
citizens or nationals of a certain have rights and that the moral obligations or duties of that
country is only for its citizens. Extreme patriots ethical and moral is “our country, right or
wrong’ (Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,n.d.)
g.Negative or destructive types of Patriotism and/or Nationalism- while constructive
patriotism pictures patriotiism as a way of showing one’s love and support for his or her
country. There are also acts considered as manifestation of one’s love to his or her country but
in a way may be destructive or seen as negative.
1.Jingoism
is an attitudeof belligerent nationalism , or a blind adherence to the rightness or virtue of
one’s own nation, society, or group, simply because it is one’s own”. A belligerent person or
group, simply who fights for their own cause. Jingoism is almost similar to chauvinism.
2.Chauvinism-
is an excessive and unreasonable patriotism similar to jingoism. Chauvinism came from Nicola
Chauvin’s name. He was a French soldier who, satisfied with the reward of military honours and a
small pension, retained a simpleminded devotion to Napoleon. Chauvin came to typify the cult o
the glorification of all things military that was popular after 1815 among the veterans of
Napoleon’s armies. Today, chauvanism pertains to any kind of ultranationalism and was used
generally to connote an undue partiality or attachment to a group or place to which one belongs
3.Pseudo-patriotism-
this type of patriotism is defined as the blind attachment to certain national culture
values, uncritical conformity with the prevailing group ways, and rejection of other
nations as outgroups (Schatz, 2020, as cited by Sardoc). Pseudo-patriots refer to persons
who use patriotism as a tool to silence all criticism by anyone who does not support what
majority political party think. These type of people tend to hate free speech unless it
applies them (Sland Define,n.d.)
4.Ethnocentrism-
This type of patriotism that embodies the assumption that thinking well of one’s own
group entails looking down on the members of other groups (Heaven, Rajab, and Ray
1985). According to Jain &Jain (2010), ethnocentrism comes closer to nationalism, both
of these terms involved positive feelings towards one’s own country and the negative
feelings about other countries. Ethnocentric patriot therefore could be those people
fighting for the supremacy of their race, culture, and other ethnic identities.
I.Difference between Nationalism and Patriotism
While the terms patriotism and nationalism were once regarded as synonymous, distinct
connotations were assumed. While both are people's feelings of affection for their nation, the
values on which they are based are very distinct. Patriotism feelings are based on the country's
positive values-like liberty, justice, and equality. The patriot thinks that both their country's
state system and individuals are inherently good and working together to achieve a better
quality of life.
On the other hand, nationalism emotions are based on the belief that one's nation is
superior to all others. It also holds a connotation of other countries 'distrust or disapproval,
leading to the premise that other states are competitors. While patriots do not degrade other
countries automatically, nationalists do, sometimes to the point of calling for the global
dominance of their country.
Nationalism is the polar opposite of globalism by its protectionist beliefs.
Historically, both positive and negative have been the impacts of nationalism.
While it has motivated movements of autonomy, such as the Zionist
movement that formed contemporary Israel, it was also a main factor in the
increase of the German Nazi Party and the Holocaust (Longley, 2019).
According to Sydney J. Harris, the patriot is proud of his nation for what it
does, and the nationalist is proud of his nation whatever it does; the first
approach generates a sense of accountability and the second a sense of blind
stupidity leading to war.
