1

TR5108
Public Transportation System

PLANNING
PUBLIC TRANSPORT SYSTEM
Planning Process and Data
Requirement
 2

BASIC PREMISE
• Using transit should be like eating potato chips
– once you start, it’s hard to stop.
• How do we design and approach such service
while knowing, because of the competition
offered by cars (and motorcycles), that an
adequate transit design must provide
superlative service in order to be good
enough?

Ceder, 2007
TRANSIT PLAN DEVELOPMENT,
EVALUATION & SELECTION
 4

THE DECISION IS VERY IMPORTANT:

• Determines the technological, operational, and
network characteristics
• Influences the role transit will have in the
development of a city’s physical form, economic
activities, and social and environmental
conditions
• All benefits (gains) and costs of each transit
project or mode must be estimated to find its
worth
 5

THE BASIC PRINCIPLES

• Each evaluated system/mode should be considered with
comparable assumptions
• If different technologies or modes are compared, each one
should be optimized to the local conditions
• Differences among candidate system should be defined by
categories: technologies, operations, types of service, etc
• Attention must be given to the entire system
• Should include monetary as well as other quantitative and
qualitative items
• Ability to attract passengers and influence land use
development should be included
• The greater the differences among compared modes, the
more comprehensive must be the evaluation procedure
 6
CONVERSION OF GOALS & LOCAL CONDITIONS SET
INTO TRANSIT SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

Conditions set
Planning Local conditions

Economic
Goal and Physical-
(cost), social, Travel demand
objectives geographical
environmental

Transit System Requirement

Passengers Operator Community
• Availability • Area coverage • SQ/passenger attraction
• Frequency/Headway • Reliability • System cost
• Punctuality • Cycle speed • Reliability in
• Speed/travel time • Capacity emergencies
• Comfort • Flexibility • Social objectives
• Convenience • Safety and security • Environmental impact
• Security and safety • Costs • Energy consumption
• User cost • Passenger attraction • Long-range impacts
• Side effects
 8

Ceder, 2007
 9

Ceder, 2007
 10
PROCEDURE FOR TRANSIT
PLAN DEVELOPMENT
 11

SERVICE STANDARDS AND TYPICAL CRITERIA

12
 13

LOAD FACTOR STANDARD

FAKTOR MUAT (PENUMPANG/

LOS KETERANGAN
TEMPAT DUDUK)
A 0,00 – 0,50 Penumpang tidak perlu duduk
bersebelahan
B 0,51 – 0,75 Penumpang masih dapat memilih tempat
duduk
C 0,76 – 1,00 Semua penumpang dapat duduk
D 1,01 – 1,25 Faktor muat nyaman untuk penumpang
berdiri
E 1,26 – 1,50 Faktor muat maksimum
F >1,50 Penuh sesak

Sumber: TCRP Report 100: Transit Capacity and Quality of Service Manual, Transportation Research Board, 2003.
 14

TRANSIT LOS STANDARDS

CAKUPAN
HEADWAY KENDARAAN/ WAKTU OPERASI
LOS LAYANAN (%
(MENIT) JAM (JAM/HARI)
AREA)
A <10 >6 19 – 24 90 – 100
B 10 – 14 5–6 17 – 16 80 – 89,9
C 15 – 20 3-4 14 – 16 70 – 79,9
D 21 – 30 2 12 – 13 60 – 69,9
E 31 – 60 1 4 – 11 50 – 59,9
F >60 <1 0–3 <50
Sumber: TCRP Report 100: Transit Capacity and Quality of Service Manual, Transportation Research Board,
2003.
 15

TRANSIT LOS STANDARDS: WORLD BANK

NO INDIKATOR STANDAR
1 Faktor Muat Kurang dari kapasitas maksimum kendaraan.
Manila Light Rail Transit Authority  faktor
keterisian (occupancy factor) minimum 65% dan
maksimum 80%.

2 Headway Cali, Colombia  membedakan antara headway

rute utama (trunk) dan rute pengumpan (feeder): 8
dan 15 menit.
3 Cakupan Layanan Mencapai jarak jalan kaki maksimum 500 meter
4 Indeks Keterjangkauan Maksimum 10% dari pendapatan MBR (20% dari
populasi termiskin)
5 Waktu operasi 05:00 – 23:00
Sumber: Measuring Public Transport Performance, Standards and Monitoring, PPIAF, World Bank, 2009.
 16

SPM ANGKUTAN KOTA: PERMENHUB PM 98/2013

KRITERIA UNTUK EFISIENSI

NO. INDIKATOR NILAI/UKURAN/JUMLAH
RUTE ANGKOT
Jumlah penumpang yang • Mobil bus kecil 9 s/d 19 penumpang
KENYAMANAN:
1. diangkut paling tinggi 100% • Mobil penumpang umum total 8 termasuk
DAYA ANGKUT
sesuai daya angkut pengemudi

Penentuan tarif berdasarkan SK Dirjen Perhubungan

KETERJANGKAUAN: Darat No. 687 Tahun 2002 tentang Pedoman Teknis
2. Tarif terjangkau
TARIF Penyelenggaraan Angkutan Umum di Wilayah
Perkotaan dalam Trayek Teratur

3. KETERATURAN

Waktu yang diperlukan untuk

Paling lama 60 detik (disesuaikan dengan waktu
WAKTU BERHENTI DI HALTE menaikkan dan menurunkan
puncak dan non-puncak masing-masing daerah)
penumpang (detik)

Waktu (jarak) antar • Waktu puncak paling lama 15 menit

HEADWAY
kendaraan • Waktu non-puncak paling lama 30 menit

Prosentase armada yang

KINERJA OPERASIONAL Paling sedikit 90% jumlah armada
beroperasi
Paling lama 20 tahun atau ditetapkan oleh pemberi
Umur kendaraan
izin
 17

Transit Planning

PLANNING & SELECTION OF TRANSIT MODES:

LOW, MEDIUM, AND HIGH PERFORMANCE
 18
CONCEPTUAL
PRESENTATION OF
MODES DEFINED AS
RTS (Row Category,
Technology,
Service)
 19
TRANSIT MODE/SYSTEM SELECTION PROCEDURE
 20
COMPARISON OF MODES BASED ON COSTS:
Disregarding differences in Level of Service and Passenger Attraction
 7
Basic Elements Technical Options Description and Comments

1. Right-of-way C – street with mixed traffic Increasing investment and mode

B – partially separated performance
A – fully separated
2. Vehicle guidance Steered – highway vehicles Some guided modes use guiding tires
Guided – mostly rail, some or other type of guidance
rubber-tired
3. Guided vehicle Steel wheels on rails Rail-guided technology allows use of
support Rubber tires on roadways or ROW A, B, or C. Guided rubber-tired
running beams vehicles are limited to ROW A, except
guided bus when steered

4. Propulsion Internal combustion engine with Diesel mostly on highways, electric on

diesel fuel, CNG or LNG rails, but with overlaps, such as
Electric trolleybus and diesel commuter rail
Linear induction motor systems

5. TU driving and Driver-driven, Automated requires ROW A, guided

control Driver with ATO and electric propulsion
ATO, no driver
6. Service – type of Many overlapping lines With increasing passenger volumes,
network and Rail trunk with feeders trunk lines play a greater role
operation Rail networks supplemented by
bus lines
 22
PERFORMANCE-COST PACKAGES OF DIFFERENT GENERIC CLASSES OF TRANSIT MODES
 23
CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT TRANSIT MODES

Mode ROW Mode Support & Propul- TU Cars per TU Line

Category Cate- Guidance sion Control TU Capacity Capacity
gory (Spaces) (sps/h)
Street C Bus Road/ ICE Driver/ 1 80-125 3,000-
Transit steered visual 6,000
C Tram Rail/ Electric Driver/ 1-3 100-300 10,000-
guided signal 20,000
Semirapid B BRT Road/ ICE Driver/ 1 80-180 6,000-
transit- steered visual 24,000
medium
perfor- B LRT Rail/ Electric Driver/ 1-4 100-720 10,000-
mance guided signal 24,000
A AGT Guided Electric ATO 1-6 (10) 50-480 6,000-
16,000
Rapid A LRRT Rail Electric Signal 1-4 100-600 10,000-
transit-high 28,000
performan
ce A Metro Rail Electric Signal/ 4-10 720- 40,000-
ATO 2500 70,000
A Regional Rail Electric Signal 1-10 150- 25,000-
rail /diesel (14) 1800 40,000
Bus Rapid Transit Planning Guide, ITDP, Wright and Hook, 2007
 40

IN CONCLUSION
[Ethics in Planning, Martin Wachs, 1985]
The purpose of planning tools is to provide systematic and
neutral information to support decision-making, while the
ethical content of planning is assumed to be in the definition of
the problem and the weighing of information by decision makers.

[Transport Planning, David Banister, 1994]

Transport planning must be seen as an integral part of a much
wider process of decision making. Too often in the past transport
solutions have been seen as the only way to resolve transport
problem … transport problem must be seen as part of the land-
use planning and development process, which requires an
integrated approach to analysis and a clear vision of the type of
the city and society in which we wish to live.
 26

TRANSIT PLANNING PROCESS

Commonly includes four basic activities:

• Network route design
• Timetable development
• Vehicle scheduling
• Crew scheduling

(Ceder and Wilson, 1986; Ceder, 2001, 2002)

Ceder, 2007
INDEPENDENT INPUT PLANNING ACTIVITY OUTPUT

1 Network Route Design

Land-use characteristics Determination of Interchanges and

interchanges and terminals terminals
Authority constraints

Design of network of routes Fixed-routes and

Current patronage, by time- stops
of-day, day-of-week and stops

Input
2
Timetable Development
Service standards Alternative setting
Analysis of frequencies and of frequencies and
Times for first and last trip headways
headways
Running times Selected public
Analysis and construction
timetable
Comparison measures of alternative timetables

3
Vehicle scheduling
INDEPENDENT INPUT PLANNING ACTIVITY OUTPUT
2
Selected public
Timetable Development
timetable

3
Vehicle Scheduling

Fleet-size analysis with

and w/o interlinings

Service and dead-head Determination of lower Lower bound fleet

travel times bound size

Layover and recovery times Reduction via

Minimum fleet
deadheading
size
Schedule constraints and
Reduction via shifting
criteria
departures times

Cost element
Analysis and construction Vehicle schedules
of blocks
INDEPENDENT INPUT PLANNING ACTIVITY OUTPUT

3
Vehicle Scheduling Vehicle Schedules

4
Crew Scheduling
Crew list
Analysis and construction
of crew assignments
Relief points Crew schedules
and duty rosters
Establishment of crew
Crew work rules, rotation rosters
rules, constraints

Functional diagram (System Architecture)

of a common transit-operation planning process (Ceder, 2007)
Transit Planning

DATA REQUIREMENT
 31

DATA REQUIREMENT & COLLECTION

Ceder, 2007
 32

TRANSIT DATA COLLECTION METHOD

• Manual-based method
• Automated-based method
• Automated Vehicle Location (AVL)-based method or
Automated Vehicle Monitoring (AVM)-based method
– Dead-reckoning (using the vehicle’s odometer and
compass)
– GPS
– Signposts (transmitted signals picked up by vehicle)
– Ground-based radio
– Real-time reporting
Ceder, 2007
 33

AVL AND RELIABILITY

 34

AVL AND RELIABILITY

 35

PRIMARY TECHNIQUES

• Point check
• Ride check
• Deadhead check
• Passenger survey
• Populations survey

Ceder, 2007
 36

POINT CHECK

• Counts and measurement performed by a checker

stationed at a transit stop.
• Usually contains load counts (on-board load), arrival and
departure times, and vehicle and route identifications.
• Selected points: peak stops (maximum load points), end
points, and strategic points.
• End points: running time measurements, and, if
applicable, record farebox readings.
• Strategic points: major transfer points, major activity
centers, and new neighbourhoods  measuring transfer
time, competitor modes, changes in demand.
Ceder, 2007
 37

POINT CHECK

Ceder, 2007
 38

POINT CHECK = SURVEI STATIS

• Hal-hal yang diamati: nomor trayek kendaraan,

kapasitas kendaraan, tanda nomor kendaraan, jam
kedatangan dan jam keberangkatan, serta jumlah
penumpang (tidak termasuk awak kendaraan)
• Penyigi: 1 orang mencatat di pintu masuk terminal, 1
orang mencatat di pintu keluar terminal, 1 orang
mencatat di ruas jalan
• Pengamatan di terminal: sepanjang hari operasi
terminal
• Pengamatan di ruas jalan: sepanjang waktu pelayanan.
Panduan Pengumpulan Data Angkutan Umum Perkotaan, Departemen Perhubungan, 2001
 39

POINT CHECK = SURVEI STATIS

Panduan Pengumpulan Data Angkutan Umum Perkotaan, Departemen Perhubungan, 2001

 40

RIDE CHECK

• Counts and measurement performed by a

checker either a checker riding the transit
vehicle along the entire route or an automated
instrument replacing human checker.
• On and off passenger counts, arrival and
departure time for each stop, vehicle running
speed, boarding by fare category, gender of
passengers and baggage size, record farebox
readings.
Ceder, 2007
 41

RIDE CHECK

Ceder, 2007
 42

RIDE CHECK = SURVEI DINAMIS

• Membagi panjang trayek dalam segmen-segmen

berdasarkan: tataguna lahan, demografi, jarak antar
halte, jarak antar persimpangan
• Penyigi: 1 orang mencatat waktu tempuh di tiap
segmen, 1 orang mencatat penumpang naik-turun 
duduk di dekat pintu masuk atau keluar
• Catat jam keberangkatan
• Jumlah pengamatan dilakukan terhadap sekurang-
kurangnya 6 pp pada waktu sibuk pagi, 6 pp pada
waktu tidak sibuk dan 6 pp pada waktu sibuk sore.
Panduan Pengumpulan Data Angkutan Umum Perkotaan, Departemen Perhubungan, 2001
 43

DEADHEAD CHECK

• Refers to the average vehicle running time

between an arrival point on one route and a
departure point on another route.
• Required in a transit system with interlining
routes.
• Measured mainly by agency cars travelling along
the shortest path (in time) between the two
route end points. The shortest path varies by
time of the day, day of the week and type of day.
Ceder, 2007
 44

PASSENGER SURVEY

• On-board, at stop, at terminal, and mail-back (postage-free

forms)  most common: on-board.
• Distribute forms to fill out or ask questions in person.
• Incentive may be required to increase responses.
• General surveys: O-D, access and egress modes and distances,
trip purpose, routes selected on a trip, fare paid, type of
payment, frequency of use by time of day, socio-economic and
attitude elements.
• Special purpose surveys  one type of information: O-D, opinion
of service changes, transfer activities, pass-holder usage, attitude
toward possible fare changes, or the proportion of different fare
types (adult, student, free passes, transfer, and special fare).
Ceder, 2007
 45

POPULATION SURVEY

• Conducted at the regional level at home, shop or

workplace.
• Interview-based, involving transit and non-transit users.
• To capture public attitudes and opinions about transit
service changes (including the impact on household
location decisions), fare changes, and transportation,
traffic and land-use projects.
• Potential ridership, market segmentation, market
opportunities and suggestions for new transit
initiatives.
Ceder, 2007
 46

Ceder, 2007
Transit Planning: Basic Operating Elements

TRANSIT LINES AND NETWORK

 7

TRANSIT LINE OR TRANSIT ROUTE

• A transit line is the infrastructure and service

provided on a fixed alignment by vehicles or
trains operating on a predetermined schedule.
• The infrastructure may vary from simple stop
designation along a street to a grade-separated,
fully controlled right-of-way with stations.
• A transit route is often synonymous with transit
line, but it usually designates street transit, often
overlapping lines, rather than major metro or
regional rail lines.
 8

TRANSIT NETWORK

• A set of transit lines that connect with or cross

each other and that are coordinated for efficient
operation and provision of integrated services in
an area for the convenience of passengers and
efficiency of operations.
 9

TRANSIT RIGHT-OF-WAY: DEFINITION

• The strip of land on which a transit line operates

• The facility used exclusively by transit vehicles
• In broader sense, refers to numerous physical
forms a transit line may follow, from street to
fully controlled aerial (elevated) structure or
tunnel
 10

TRANSIT RIGHT-OF-WAY: CATEGORY - I

• Category C: a surface street with mixed traffic

– Transit vehicles share street space with other vehicles
and pedestrian
– May have preferential treatment through visual
devices (pavement markings, signs or signals), but no
physical separation from other traffic
– Examples: buses, trolley-buses, streetcars (tramways)
– Represents street transit generic class
 11

TRANSIT RIGHT-OF-WAY: CATEGORY - II

• Category B: physically separated (by curbs,

barriers, green strips, etc.) from other traffic
– But with at-grade crossings for vehicles and
pedestrian, including regular street intersections
– Defines as the generic class of semi rapid transit
modes
– Most common representative is light rail transit (LRT)
 12

TRANSIT RIGHT-OF-WAY: CATEGORY - III

• Category A: a fully controlled ROW without grade

crossings or any legal access by other vehicles or
persons
– Grade-separated, private or exclusive
– Can be in a tunnel or a cut, on the surface, on an
embankment, or on aerial structure
– The main element defining the rapid transit generic class of
modes, among which metro or rail rapid transit is the
dominant representative
• Automated guided transit (AGT)
• Regional rail lines have some grade crossings with full signal
override  such crossings usually have no impact on line
performance
 13

TRANSIT STOP & STATIONS

• Transit stop: a location along a line at which transit vehicles
stop to pick up and drop off passengers
– Its equipment may include signs, information, a bench, and
shelter
• Transit station: a special structure and facility for passenger
boarding/alighting, waiting, and transfer
– Facilities: boarding platforms, mezzanines, stairways, and fare
collection equipment, and for vehicle operation, such as
turnback and storage racks
• Transfer stations: joint stations for two or more lines at
which passengers can transfer between lines
• Terminals: strictly defines as end stations on a transit line
(but sometimes also used for major transfer stations)
Transit Planning: Transit Lines and Network

THE OBJECTIVES OF PLANNING

TRANSIT NETWORK
 15

OBJECTIVES OF PLANNING TRANSIT NETWORK

• Perform maximum transportation network: user side
– Expressed by the number of passenger-trips or passenger-km
– Implies provision of high travel speed, passenger
convenience, and other elements that attract passengers
• Achieve maximum operating efficiency: operator side
– The minimum total system cost for a required performance
level
• Create positive impacts
– Congestion, high population mobility, desirable land-use
patterns, sustainability, high quality of life
The Objectives of Planning Transit Network

1. PASSENGER ATTRACTION
 17

AREA COVERAGE
• Percent of the total urban area that is within 5-minute or
400-m (primary) and 10-minute or 800-m (secondary)
walking distance of transit stations, represents the basic
element of transit system availability
• Willingness of potential passengers to walk or use feeder
modes, from bicycles and buses to personal cars,
depends greatly on the quality of rail transit service, trip
lengths, and condition of travel by alternative modes
• The decrease of ridership with access distance is more
rapid for street transit modes than for metro and regional
rail, due to the higher level of service the latter modes
offer (Bandi et al., 1974)
 18

POTENTIAL RIDERSHIP VS ACCESS DISTANCE

 19

AREA COVERAGE PLANNING GOALS

• In small and medium-sized cities, the goal should

achieve high area coverage (80-100%) by street
transit.
• In large cities:
– Trip lengths are larger
– High area coverage of rail transit systems, metro, light,
and regional rail as one of the basic planning goals
– Bus lines are supplemental, predominantly for shorter
trips
 20

OTHER PASSENGER ATTRACTION VARIABLES

• Operating speed: a function of ROW category and

station spacings
• Travel desire lines: transit lines should be designed
to follow as closely as possible major Origin-
Destination (O-D) patterns of travel to attract and
serve efficiently the maximum number of
passengers
• Directness of travel: ratio of passenger-km traveled
on the network to passenger-km along straight O-D
lines, expresses an efficiency of the network design
• Simplicity, connectivity and easy transfers
 A B
Terminal station

Transfer station

F C
F

E D E

NETWORK OF INDEPENDENT LINES

 22

PARIS METRO
 23

TOKYO METRO
 24

BOSTON
RAIL
NETWORK
 A B
A B
Terminal station

Transfer station

F C
F C

E D E D

NETWORK OF INTEGRATED
(OVERLAPPING) LINES
 26

NEW YORK
CITY SUBWAY
 27

LONDON UNDERGROUND
 28

WASHINGTON
METRO
 29

INDEPENDENT VS INTEGRATED NETWORK

Type of Operation Independent Integrated
Characteristics
General Example General Example

Number of n/2 When n=6  3 n(n-1)/2 15

lines/routes
Frequency on each f 15 f/(n-1) 3
route
Network image for Strong, clear image Weak image, passenger confusion
users
Transfers Extensive  eased by well-designed transfer Fewer: greater flexibility of travel, but at the
stations expense of longer waiting times for individual
lines

Network operations Simple  reliable, and therefore, highest Complex: a delay on one line may be
possible line capacity of all transit modes but transferred to other lines; difficult to schedule
the capacity utilization is low toward line and supervise
terminals

Rolling stock Independent among lines (if lines are physically Good network-wide: when delays occur 
utilization separate, rolling stocks cannot be shared among reroute and revised services are possible
lines)

Good examples Tokyo, Paris, Boston, Hamburg, Paris New York (complex, but efficient and reliable),
Chicago, San Francisco BART, Oslo, Stockholm,
London*, Washington* (*moderate
overlapping)
The Objectives of Planning Transit Network

2. NETWORK OPERATING
EFFICIENCY
 31

FIVE MAJOR DETERMINANTS OF EFFICIENCY

• Continuity and balancing of lines (direct services among areas
with heavy travel demand)
• Operating flexibility is increased through the provision of
connections between lines at which transit units can be
switched among lines for scheduled or unforeseen changes of
services
• Integration with other modes ensures that a network provides a
service in a greater area than immediate sheds of its station
(e.g. bus feeders to rail trunk line, P+R facilities, etc)
• Terminals, depots, and yards should be placed at such location
that deadheading (minimum distance to the lines)
• Cost of the system: life-cycle costs (including capital investment
and operating costs)
The Objectives of Planning Transit Network

3. NETWORK-CITY INTERACTION
 33

TO ENSURE POSITIVE IMPACTS OF TRANSIT

• Enable and stimulate development of certain land use patterns
– Good coordination between city and rail transit planning: e.g.
Amsterdam, Frankfurt, the San Francisco Bay Area, Stockholm,
Toronto, and the Washington Metropolitan Area.
• Topography and environment usually impose stringent
requirements and constrains on a transit system
• The existing transportation network must be taken into
account since it may be used for location of transit facilities (bus
lanes, light rail median, metro tunnels or railway corridors)
• Network design represents a compromise among such
conflicting requirements as overlapping lines for passenger
convenience versus operating simplicity of independent lines;
or speed, capacity, and area coverage versus investment cost.
 34

COPENHAGEN RAIL NETWORK & FINGER PLAN

 35

FINGER PLAN IN 2007

Transit Planning : Transit Lines and Network

TYPES OF TRANSIT LINES AND THEIR

CHARACTERISTICS
 80

RADIAL AND DIAMETRICAL LINES

• Radial lines, with one terminus in the city center,
the other in the suburbs, tend to follow the major
demand.
– Decreasing passenger volumes outward from the
center
– Limited distributions in the city center, involving long
access distances or transferring by most passengers
– Terminals are located in high-density areas where land
is most valuable and space least available
• Connects suburbs on different sides of the city
center
81
 82

TANGENTIAL AND CIRCUMFERENTIAL LINES

• Tangential or crosstown lines, following a
tangential direction with respect to the city
center
– Common in cities with grid street pattern
– Mostly operated by bus
• Circumferential lines are laid out around central
city, intersecting radial and diametrical lines and
have transfers with them, creating an integrated
network
 83

CIRCLE OR RING LINES

• Three functions:
– Direct connection among numerous medium-to-high
density areas around city center (inner ring)
– Distributors for radial metro and regional rail lines
– Enable many suburb-to-suburb trips to use a radial-
circle-radial path
• Two disadvantages:
– Has a fixed cycle time without the flexible terminal
times for a given operating speed
– Very vulnerable to delays because they can have at
most a short (two- to four minute) terminal time at
one of the stations for schedule recovery
 84

LOOP LINES
• Portions of regular two way lines, which have a
closed circle at one end of the line, usually with
one-way operation
– Have only one terminal
– Often used for short-haul services within CBD areas,
or for collection distribution of rail passengers in the
CBD or in the suburbs.
 85

GEOMETRY FORMS OF TRANSIT LINES

 86

TRUNK LINES WITH BRANCHES & FEEDERS

• Trunk lines: transit lines that follow radial
directions with the highest passenger demand
• From the city center outward, the trunk lines
divide into a greater number of lines with lower
loads serving large, often low-density suburban
lines
– That provide direct service from the trunk are
branches
– Which operate independently from trunk line stations
in outward directions are feeders
 87

TRUNK WITH BRANCHES

Trunk line with branches,

Direct service to city center,
Poor connection between
suburban areas points,
Transfer are not accommodated

 Provide the passengers a continuous service without

transfers and delays from center city and suburban areas
 Being longer lines, trunk and branches have smaller
percentage of cycle time as terminal times than trunk
with feeders
 Transfer stations are not needed
 88

TRUNK WITH FEEDERS

 Each line section can be optimized with respect to mode and vehicle type used,
schedule, etc.
 Use higher-performance vehicles or mode (usually rail) on the trunk provides superior
service at lower operating cost than smaller vehicles from branches (buses) can
provide.
 Regular headways can be operated on the trunk and on each feeder line
 More reliable service; delays are less likely to transfer between trunk and feeders
 Suburban terminals for trunks offer not only trunk/feeder transfers, but also transfers
among feeder lines, providing greater network connectivity

Trunk line with frequent, regular

service, usually rail; feeders with
transfer to the trunk, but not
among feeders
 89

BUS RAPID TRANSIT: TRUNK-FEEDERS SERVICES

 Can increase the the number

of passengers per vehicle
 Reduce the number of vehicles
on the road
 Required passengers to
transfer at one or more points
in their journeys
Illustrative Comparison between  Burdening transfer process
Trunk-and-Feeder and Direct Services
(Wright & Hook, 2007)  Users tend to penalize
“waiting time” more severe
than “travel time”
 90

TRANSMILENIO, BOGOTA: FEEDER ROUTES

Source: Wright & Hook, 2007

Transit Planning

DETERMINING FREQUENCY AND

HEADWAY
 92

FREQUENCY AND HEADWAY

• One of the major foci in determining transit

service if the selection of the most suitable
frequency (vehicle/hour) for each route in the
system, by time-of-day, day-of-week, and day-
type.
• Frequency determination is in essence of
paramount importance for creating transit
timetables.
 93

1. MAX LOAD (POINT CHECK) METHOD

Pmj Simple average/with standard

Fj 
deviation of no. of passengers
Frequency

 j c
in period j
capacity

load factor

d oj desired occupancy
in period j
 94

METHOD 1: DAILY MAX LOAD POINT

 95

METHOD 2: HOURLY MAX LOAD POINT

 96

EXAMPLE
 97

FIVE HOUR LOAD PROFILES

 98

RESULT
 99

2. LOAD PROFILE (RIDE CHECK) METHODS

• Load variability among the

transit stops (load profile)
• In method 2, if a straight line is
drawn across the load profile
where the number of
passengers is equal to the
observed average hourly max
load, then the area below this
line but above the load profile
is a measure of needless
productivity  empty seat-
kilometer
 10
0

METHOD 3: LOWER-BOUND FREQUENCY USING

PASSENGER-KM

 A j Pmj 
F3 j  max  , , Fmj 
 d oj  L c 
A j   Pij  i
iS
L   i
iS
 10
1

METHOD 3

• Using the results of Method 3 allows planner to handle:

– Demand changes without increasing the available number of
vehicles
– Situations in which some vehicles are needed elsewhere (e.g.
breakdown and maintenance problems or emergencies)
– Occasions when there are fewer drivers than usual (e.g. owing
to budget cuts or problems with the drivers’ union).
• On the other hand, it can result in unpleasant travel for
an extended distance in which the load (occupancy) is
above doj.
 10
2

METHOD 4: LEVEL-OF-SERVICE LOAD PORTION

Establish a level of service consideration by restricting the total
portion of the route length having loads greater than the
desired occupancy (do).

 A j Pmj 
F4 j  max  , , Fmj 
 d oj  L c 
subject to (s.t.)  i   j  L
iI j
 10
3

APPLICATION
 10
4

APPLICATION (Cont.)
 10
5

APPLICATION (Cont.)
 10
6

ANOTHER EXAMPLE
Transit Planning

TRANSIT SCHEDULING
Transit Planning : Transit Lines and Network

TRANSFER IN TRANSIT NETWORK

 48

THE IMPORTANCE OF TRANSFERS

• Inadequate transfer arrangements usually create
major obstacles to present passengers and
discourage potential passengers from using
transit
• Convenient and efficient transfers among lines
must be provided
– Functional design of lines
– The optimal layout of transfer stations
– Coordinated scheduling
– Better information
– Joint tariff
 49

TRANSFERS CLASSIFICATION BY HEADWAY

ORIGIN – DESTINATION SHORT HEADWAY LONG HEADWAY
LINE
SHORT HEADWAY Case A Case C
Always short - - Varies greatly
convenient - Information about connecting runs
required

LONG HEADWAY Case B Case D

Always short - Variables depending on headways:
convenient 1. Equal and simultaneous – all transfers
convenient (TTS)
2. Equal but not simultaneous –
convenient in one direction
3. Different – impossible to coordinate,
long transfer times
 50

TRANSFERS CLASSIFICATION BY TYPE OF LINES

 51

TIMED TRANSFER SYSTEM (TTS)

• A network consisting of transit lines and one or several transit
centers (or focal points of the network) at which transit units
(TUs) from all intersecting lines arrive simultaneously, allowing
easy passenger transfer in all directions.
• Services on the lines are scheduled for such arrivals and
simultaneous dwell times, which are as long as is needed to
allow passengers to transfer and then TUs to depart.
• Used most effectively on systems that operate with precise
schedules.
• Major actions:
– Lines and networks must be laid out and scheduled so that the system
operates in a synchronized manners
– The operations must be as reliable as possible
– A comprehensive effort for distribution of information and marketing
must precede and accompany TTS service
 52

EXAMPLE OF
PLANNING TTS

Planning a five-line TTS for

pulse headways of 15 and 20
mnutes

Note:
T: the cycle time
N: number of TU operating on a
line

The minimum cycle times are

adjusted to the values
compatible with the respected
headway by:
- Lengthening terminal times
(most common)
- Increasing operating speed
- Changing the line length or
alignment
- Changing the number of TUs
 53

BIFOCAL TTS NETWORK

In a bifocal network, each transit

center has radial and diametrical
lines, consisting of:
- A direct connector line, a fast
line with the primary role to
connect two centers
- A collector-distributor
connector line, serving local
trips in the corridor
 54

TRIANGULAR TTS NETWORK

A triangular TTS network

forms a closed geometric
pattern, which places certain
constraints on the connecting
lines
 55

PLANNING A MULTIFOCAL TTS

1. Define service area and collect information about its
transit services and street network
2. Develop projected travel demand of all major sections of
the street and transit line network
3. Select a large number of potential locations for transit
centers
4. Considering the potential travel demand and cost of
providing the service, decide the pulse headway (see
planning TTS procedure slide 50)
5. Estimate transit operating speed and compute travel
times between potential transit centers
6. Select a set of the most appropriate transit centers
7. Design the network
 56

TTS-BASED SCHEDULE
• May require a greater number of TUs usually on the
order of 10-15%
– Because some cycle times need to be lengthened
– Higher operating costs
– Yet, allowing network-wide travel, improve transit image,
generate greater ridership and revenue
• Intermodal TTS centers are often organized at stations
of regional rail lines. Feeder buses are scheduled to
arrive a few minutes before the train and leave a few
minutes after its departure from the station.
• Is not used for metro lines with short headways
– Not necessary
– Would cause uneven loadings of trains
 57

MAIN REFERENCES

 Avishai (Avi) Ceder

Public Transit Planning and Operation: Theory, Modelling and
Practice
Elsevier, UK, 2007

 Vukan R. Vuchic
Urban Transit: Operations, Planning, and Economics
John Wiley & Sons, Canada, 2005

 Wright, L. and Hook, W.

Bus Rapid Transit Planning Guide
Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP), 2007