The Theory of Evolution

CBGS Marine & Environmental Science

• Unity of Life
• Life arises only from pre-existing life
(spontaneous generation is disproved)
• All living organisms are composed of one or
more cells
• All organisms share a single DNA code (A, T,
G, C)
• Diversity of Life
• Earth has been host (now and in the past) to
a staggering variety of life forms …
penguins to petunias, dandelions to
dinosaurs, ostriches to octopi, lobsters to
lions, banana trees to bacteria, mushrooms to
monkeys
How can life be so diverse yet still unified???
 Answer: Life Changes over Time
Evolution = A gradual change
in a population’s genes and
traits over time, with
increasing adaptation to the
prevailing environment

Evolution of Complex Life

Forms from Simpler Ones

An Historically Controversial Theory

 “Lamarckism”
(Jean Lamarck, 1809)

The first hypothesis of evolution (now rejected!):

1) Individual organisms can acquire new traits during
their own lifetimes …they can change their own
bodies through effort, behavior, use (or disuse) of
parts, etc.

2) Their offspring will inherit these acquired traits.

WRONG!!! Even if an organism does change its body

during its lifetime, its offspring will not inherit those
changes. Organisms cannot alter their genes or DNA
through their behavior!
 The classic Lamarckian example: Giraffe evolution. Lamarck
suggested that early giraffes acquired longer necks by stretching
for the most distant leaves. Their offspring inherited the
additional length. They then stretched even more, and so on…

NO!
Baby giraffes can’t inherit the results of parental
neck stretching.
Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
Charles Darwin, mid-1800’s
During his famous voyage around
South America on the HMS Beagle,
Darwin visited the Galapagos
archipelago, a collection of young
volcanic islands off the coast of
Ecuador. Here he collected finches
from different islands. Each island
had its own peculiar variety of finch.
What’s more, each finch was well
adapted for feeding on that particular
island.
Darwin proposed that these finches
shared a common ancestry, but had
“evolved” to become adapted for the
particular habitat on each island.
But how???
Darwin observed that no two members
of the same species are perfectly
identical. Each organism is born
slightly different from its parents, from
its brothers and sisters, and from other
members of that species.
(We now know that this stems from
random reshuffling of genes during
sexual reproduction, plus the
occasional mutation …things Darwin
knew nothing about!).
He reasoned that over many generations,
a lot of little differences can add up to
some really enormous changes!
But why does this lead to better and better
adaptations???
 Evolution by “Natural Selection”
(Charles Darwin, 1859)
1) In any population, more offspring will be produced than will
survive (environment has a fixed & finite “carrying capacity”)
2) Those offspring will compete with one another for survival
and limited resources (escaping predators, finding food and
shelter, etc.)
3) A random variety of traits will appear among those offspring
4) Some traits are more favorable (or “adaptive”) than others for
competing and surviving in a particular environment
(“Survival of the Fittest”)
5) Those offspring which happen to be born with more adaptive
traits will have a better chance of surviving long enough to
reproduce, thereby passing on their adaptive traits
6) In the next generation there will be a higher frequency of
adaptive traits (= Evolution)
•Darwin understood that the key
to evolution was the passing of
selected TRAITS that enhances
the organisms ability to survive
and/or reproduce from one
generation to the next
• Darwin used evidence from Fossil records,
comparative anatomy, and embryology
• What Darwin did not have was the ability
to study DNA sequencing and genes (a
fundamental component of the modern
Theory of Evolution!)
 Modern day flying fish have broad, wing-like pectoral
fins that enable them to glide just above the surface of
the water. Like many small pelagic fish, when a
predator strikes from below, a flying fish leaps out of
the water. Unlike most fish, however, it then spreads
its fins (or “wings”) and glides in the air for as far as
100 yards away, thus escaping its attacker! Suppose
that modern day flying fish evolved from ancient
ancestors that had “normal” pectoral fins.
•Explain how a flying fish’s
wings might have gradually
evolved through Lamarckism?…
….“Natural Selection.”??

Is this Micro- or Macro-evolution??

Empirical Evidence for
Microevolution &
Macroevolution
Two different scales of evolution...
(1) Microevolution
Gradual, short-term adaptation
of a species to its environment;
evolution of traits within a
single population of
interbreeding individuals
(ex) goldfish tails becoming
broader (or narrower), flying
Junglewalk
fish fins becoming wider and
more wing-like, deepening of
As generations of polar bears have
expanded their range into the
finch bills, etc.
Arctic, they’ve evolved thicker Sometimes possible to quantify
coats, a 4” layer of blubber, and & study through direct
white fur (cryptic coloration) observation of living populations
(e.g., Darwin’s finches)
 (2) Macroevolution

Long-term evolution across entire taxonomic groups

(“taxa” …kingdom, phylum, class, order, family,
genus, species…), including the evolution of one
taxon into one or more NEW taxa

(ex) land mammals evolving into whales, lungfish

evolving walking limbs and becoming tetrapods,
feathers evolving from reptile scales, etc.

Studied indirectly via fossil record,

comparative anatomy/embryology, & DNA
sequencing
 `
Of course, where Microevolution ends and
Macroevolution begins can be a hazy boundary (Is
the evolution of flying fish micro or macro???). The
bridge between Micro- and Macroevolution is the
process of Speciation: the evolution of a single
species (= an interbreeding population) into one or
more new species

***Bottom Line: Over the long haul of time, a

series of small Microevolutionary changes can
add up to great Macroevolutionary revolutions***
 Three Patterns of Natural Selection
Directional Stabilizing Disruptive
One extreme favored, the Both extremes Both extremes
other extreme weeded out weeded out favored

How will the How will the How will the

distribution of distribution of distribution of
traits look in the traits look in the traits look in the
future? future? future?
 Microevolutionary Consequences…
• Directional Selection: traits gradually evolve in one
particular “direction” …thicker, darker, longer, etc.
(ex) flying fish wings, giraffe necks, & pelican bills
• Disruptive Selection: leads to a “divergence” of
traits, eventually yielding two different body forms (or
“morphs”) within the species
(ex) Dimorphism in peppered moths (light vs. dark)
(ex) many plants & animals exhibit Sexual Dimorphism:
males & females bearing different body forms
• Stabilizing Selection: occurs when a trait is already
“optimal” …so in effect, even though natural selection
IS occurring, evolution itself does NOT!
(ex) hummingbird bills …not too short, not too long
 Evidence for Macroevolution
Roughly speaking, Macroevolution is what Darwin called
“Descent with Modification”: descendants from a common
ancestor gradually change and branch off into new groups.
Darwin himself recognized this process in the following:
1) Fossil Record – extinctions, with a sequential succession of forms,
including transitional forms
2) Biogeography – geographical distributions that correspond to kinship
among taxa
3) Homology – anatomical, developmental, and molecular similarities
between organisms that trace back to a common ancestor
“Homologous” refers to body structures in different species that have different
forms & functions, yet share a common ancestry
(“Analogous” refers to structures that bear a similar form & function, but have
entirely different evolutionary histories, such as snail shells & turtle shells
or bee stingers & stingray stingers)
 Fossil Record: Extinction & Succession of Forms

Older (deeper) rocks contain simpler forms of life than

younger rocks. That is, they show a sequence or
“Succession” of increasing complexity. Moreover, living
organisms in a geographic area resemble extinct
fossilized forms from that same area.

The Badlands of
South Dakota,
with strata
(layers) of
different ages
exposed by the
Missouri River.
 Transitional Forms
represent “stages in between”
major taxa. They exhibit Ambulocetus natans
characteristics both of ancient (“walking-whale swimming”)
ancestral species and more
recent descendants.
Basilosaurus isis

Modern
baleen whale
U Cal Berkeley Museum of Paleontology

Archaeopteryx, an early species of Freeman & Herron Evolutionary Analysis

bird with wings & feathers, yet with
reptilian traits such as teeth, long Whale ancestry, with vestigial
tail, and claws on the wings pelvis & legs
 Biogeography
Geographic regions with similar
habitat, climate, and topography
are often NOT inhabited by the
same species, nor even by close
relatives. Taxa show distinct
geographic distributions, and
this often corresponds to the
kinship among them. A striking
example are the parallels
between the marsupials of
Australia and placental mammals
from other continents …similar
adaptations for similar habitats
& lifestyles, yet the marsupials
are more closely related to each
other than they are to their
placental look-alikes!!! Curtis & Barnes Biology
 Anatomical Homologies
Curtis & Barnes Biology

Humerus
Darwin argued that structural
Ulna similarity reflects common
Radius ancestry, while structural
Carpals differences reflect adaptation for
Metacarpals different functions and lifestyles
(“Descent with Modification”).
Phalanges

Crocodile Bird Whale Horse Bat Human

Interpretation???
 All Figures from Freeman & Herron Evolutionary Analysis

Vestigial Structures (now functionless):

Human tailbone (coccyx), cave salamander
with tissue bulbs in place of eyes, extra
digit in wings and feet of chick embryos
(absent in adults). Also, pelvic bones in
whales.
 Embryological Homologies (incl. vestiges)
Anatomical homologies, of course, are the product of shared
Again, Darwin
developmental argued that
pathways. common ancestry
Homologous structureswas the
in adults
most the
stem from reasonable explanation
same groups of cellsfor developmental
& tissues in embryos.
similarity. Only later in development do the
structures “diverge” into their various adult forms
Early embryos of a turtle,
& functions, just aschicken, pig, mouse,
traits diverged andthe
during human …
can you tell which
course is which???
of evolution.
An old maxim of biology is “Ontogeny Recapitulates
Phylogeny,” which means that developmental
sequences retrace evolutionary history. Although
not strictly valid, there is some truth in this: we
can often see in embryos and larvae certain traces
of their ancient ancestry …tails & gill slits in us
Chick Human humans,Mouse
for example! Pig Turtle

Interpretation???
Photos from Curtis & Barnes Biology
 Molecular (Genetic) Homologies
Just as anatomical similarities stem from shared
developmental sequences, developmental sequences in turn
stem from a shared genetic program.
Recall that our genetic code is rooted in molecules of DNA.
DNA is itself a long chain of component molecules called
nucleotides, whose initials are A, T, G, & C. As with Morse
code and the alphabet, the secret to the genetic code lies in
the SEQUENCE of its components …the sequential order of
those A’s, T’s, G’s, & C’s.
The sequence of nucleotides in DNA “spells out” the directions
for assembling Proteins in the cell. And each protein itself
comprises a sequence of amino acids. So the sequence of
nucleotides “translates” into a sequence of amino acids. Dig?!
Modern Biotechnology enables us to “read” the sequence of
both DNA & Proteins …shedding much light on
Cytochrome-c is a protein found in the mitochondria of cells. It aids
in the process of Cellular Respiration, helping to harness energy
from food molecules. All plants and animals have cytochrome-c, but
there are slight differences in the exact sequence of amino acids.
The table below compares the amino acid sequence in human
Once again,
cytochrome-c to thatit’s
of 5“Descent with Modification.”
other animals. INTERPRETATION???
The more distantly related the organism, the
more differences in their molecular
# of amino makeup.
acid differences
Animal
And since the amino acid sequencetoishumans)
(compared a direct
reflection of the DNA sequence, these
differences really represent8genetic
Dog
mutations. In short, the longer it’s been
Chimpanzee 0
since the common ancestor, the more changes
that have
Dogfish occurred in the genetic
(a shark) 24 code.
Rattlesnake 12
Rhesus monkey 1
 This principle can be used to piece together evolutionary histories
where the fossil record and comparative anatomy/embryology fail.
For example, where do Whales fit in among the Mammals???
Since all mammals produce milk, and milk is rich in various proteins,
this might be a good place to look. The table below actually gives
the DNA sequence for a section of the gene for beta-casein, a
protein in the milk of dairy cows and other mammals.

Whale AGT CCC CAA AGC TAA GGA GAC TAT CCT TCC TAA GCA TAA AGA AAT GCG CTT CCC TAA ATC

Cow AGT CCC CAA AGT GAA GGA GAC TAT GGT TCC TAA GCA CAA GGA AAT GCC CTT CCC TAA ATA

Deer AGT CTC CGA AGT GAA GGA GAC TAT GGT TCC TAA GCA CGA AGA AAT GCC CTT CCC TAA ATA

Pig AGA TTC CAA AGC TAA GGA GAC CAT TGT TCC CAA GCG TAA AGG AAT GCC CTT CCC TAA ATC

Camel TGT CCC CAA AAC TAA GGA GAC CAT CAT TCC TAA GCG CAA AGA AAT GCC CTT GCT TCA GTC

Hippo AGT CCC CAA AGC AAA GGA GAC TAT CCT TCC TAA GCA TAA AGA AAT GCC CTT CTC TAA ATC

Data from Freeman & Herron Evolutionary Analysis

 # of Nucleotide Differences on Beta-casein Gene
Whale Hippo Cow Deer Pig Camel
Whale ---
Hippo 3 ---
Cow 8 8 ---
Deer 11 10 4 ---
Pig 10 11 11 13 ---
Camel 10 11 14 15 13 ---

The data indicates that Whales are most closely related to Hippos!
It also suggests a close kinship between Cows and Deer. Camels
and pigs are more distant cousins.
 This Phylogenetic Tree shows the
simplest (or “most parsimonious”)
reconstruction of evolutionary Common
relationships based on the milk gene. Ancestor

Whale Hippo Cow Deer Pig Camel

•The theory of evolution is a genetic theory.
•Evolution is the changing over time of the
frequency of genes within a wild population.
•For Natural Selection to occur, there must
exist a variety of traits among members of
that population.
• And within any population, as we shall see,
the potential for such Genetic Variation is
vast…
The Genetic Basis for Evolution:
Genetic Variation
 Evolution & Genetic Variation
A population cannot evolve unless there is genetic
variation among the members of that population. (A
population of genetic clones, for example, would not
be able to evolve …at least until some mutations had
occurred.)
For Natural Selection to occur, there must be a variety
of traits for “nature” to “select” from.
How does Genetic Variety arise within a
population???
As it turns out, there are a handful of basic genetic
mechanisms that generate an endless variety of traits
among the members of a population…
 Five Sources of Genetic Variety
1) Independent Assortment of chromosomes
during meiosis:
 Through meiosis, each sperm or egg receives only half
(23) the original number of chromosomes (46), one
from each homologous pair. During metaphase I,
homologous chromosomes pair up along the equatorial
plane, one on the left and one on the right. However,
it’s random as to which one lines up on the left and
which one lines up on the right. The left/right
arrangement of one pair of homologues has nothing to
do with the left/right arrangement of the next pair. In
short, homologous pairs “assort” themselves
“independently” of one another. Therefore when the
pairs later separate, it is completely random as to which
23 chromosomes each sperm (or egg) receives. Thus it
is very unlikely for any two sperm or any two eggs to
receive the same 23 chromosomes.
During Metaphase I, if the first two
homologues pair up like this…

…then the second two homologues

…OR like this…
may pair up like this…

With 2 pairs of chromosomes,

then, each sperm (or egg) can get
22 (= 4) possible combinations of
chromosomes.
With 23 pairs of chromosomes,
there are 223 possible
combinations.
That’s 8,400,000 possible different
sperm per human male!!!
2) Sexual Reproduction (= two parents):
Father Mother
8,400,000 8,400,000 70,000,000,000,000
possible sperm × possible eggs = possible zygotes
In short, a single married couple can, in theory, give
birth to 70 trillion chromosomally different young ’uns.
That’s a really HUGE number!!!

3) Random Mating within a population:

Since any male can breed with any female, the number of
possible zygotes further depends on the size of the adult
population. For example, take even a tiny population of, say,
100 CBGS students (50 male and 50 female), and suppose that
every student’s future spouse will be another CGBS student.
That’s 502 or 2500 possible marriages, each of which can
produce 70 trillion different offspring, which multiplies out to
175,000,000,000,000,000 possible CBGS babies.
4) “Crossing Over” of chromosomes:
During meiosis, homologous chromosomes often exchange
long sections of DNA with one another. In effect, they are
trading genes, thereby creating new chromosomes!!!

Step 1 - Homologues paired up during

metaphase I of meiosis.

Step 2 - Now “crossing over” and trading

DNA from the cross-over point down…

Step 3 - Chromosomes are different now! This

process increases the number of possible
sperm or eggs from 70 trillion to near infinite…

Not just reshuffling chromosomes here, but shuffling

individual genes!
5) Mutations: When replicating (copying itself), DNA
sometimes makes a mistake …this alters the
gene and so can generate a new trait!!!

A T T G C T A C G G A C
A T T G C T A C G G A C
T
A A
T A
T C
G G
C A
T T
A G
C C
G C
G T
A G
C
A T T G C T A C G G A C
A T T G C T A C G G A C
T A A C G A T G C C T G
T A A C G A T G C C T G
T A A C G A T G C C T G
A
T T
A T
A G
C C
G G
A A
T C
G G
C G
C A
T C
G
T A A C G A T G C C T G

OOPS!!! A Mutation
(should’ve been T, not G)
 Types of Mutations
(Background Info: in cells, DNA is “read” or “translated” in groups
of three nitrogen bases, called codons. Each codon in turn is the
code for a single amino acid in the protein to be synthesized.)
Original Sentence (all three letter words, like codons):
THE OLD DOG RAN AND THE FOX DID TOO

Substitution (or “Point” mutation) – A single letter is miscopied:

THE OLD HOG RAN AND THE FOX DID TOO

Frameshift Mutations
Deletion of a single letter (the “R” in “RAN”):
THE OLD DOG ANA NDT HEF OXD IDT OO

Insertion of an extra letter (copied “H” in “THE” twice):

THE OLD DOG RAN AND THH EFO XDI DTO O
 Rates & Effects of Mutation
Mutations create new alleles of genes. Many (probably most)
of these new alleles do not have any noticeable effect on the
organism’s phenotype. Of those that do cause a change in the
organism’s phenotype, most are likely to be harmful. But
occasionally a mutation might be beneficial or useful!
How often do mutations occur? The mutation rate is low on a
“per gene” basis. But since there are so many genes (60,000 in
humans), overall rates can be quite high. Perhaps 10% of all
gametes carry a phenotypically detectable mutation. Most
offspring probably carry at least one or two new alleles
somewhere in their chromosomes.
Add that up across the total population, and across thousands
of generations, and you can appreciate that the accumulation
of mutations can lead to revolutionary changes!!!
Summary of Sources of Genetic Variation
(deck of cards analogy)
1) Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis reshuffle already
existing genes, alleles, and traits:
a) independent assortment,
b) crossing over,
c) fertilization of eggs by sperm, and
d) random mating. This
is known as genetic recombination.
2) Mutations deal in new genes and alleles, and
therefore entirely new traits.

Meiosis and mutations provide the genetic variety

necessary to drive the process of evolution. Genetic
reshuffling (recombination) can fuel short-term
“microevolution,” but long-term “macroevolution”
requires the accumulation of mutations in the gene pool.