Motor Control: Visual System
- Janani Iyer
OBJECTIVES
To understand the basic physiology of:
• Peripheral Visual System
• Central Visual Pathways
• Primary Visual Cortex
• Higher Order Visual Cortex
HUMAN EYE
• Vision begins at the eye but neural aspect of vision starts at the retina. The cornea and the
lens mainly help in creating a focused image on the retina.
• Cornea: Transparent layer at the front of the eye. Lets light into the eyes by refracting the
light rays to direct it towards the retina
• Lens: Less refractive power than the cornea. Can modify its shape due to the ciliary
muscles in the eye which helps to maintain focus on objects that are closer or farther away.
• Pupil: Opening in the middle of the iris. It regulates the amount of light that reaches the
retina by adjusting the size of the the pupil. Low light (pupil dilates) & high light (pupil
constricts).
RETINA
• It is a neural structure and its function is to detect light and produce electrical/chemical
signals that can be understood by the rest of the CNS.
• There are 5 basic neurons in the retina which are situated in distinct layers
1. Photoreceptors (Rods and Cones)
2. Horizontal Cells
3. Bipolar Cells
4. Amacrine Cells
5. Ganglion Cells
1. Photoreceptors: (Rods & Cones)
• Convert light energy to electrical and chemical signals via a process called as
Phototransduction.
• Located at the backmost layer of the retina. Hence, light has to travel through all the other
cells to reach the retina.
• Surrounded by pigment epithelial cells which help in maintaining the photoreceptor cells and
their function.
• These cells absorb photons of light causing the photoreceptors to change the level of
neurotransmitter release in order to convey information about the visual scene.
RODS CONES
• More in number (90 million) • Less in number (4.5 million)
• No color perception • Has color perception
• Very sensitive to light • Not very sensitive to light
• Low spatial resolution (not good at seeing • High spatial resolution (higher visual
details) acuity)
• Activated during low light conditions (in • Activated during high light conditions
dim light we cannot perceive color)
• Fovea: A point where there are more cones than rods. Part of the retina with the capacity
for highest equity vision.
• Foveola: A point in the center of the fovea where there are no rods at all.
2. Bipolar Cells:
• Bipolar cells are one of the main retinal interneurons and provide the main pathways from
photoreceptors to ganglion cells, i.e. direct pathways between the input and output of
visual signals in the retina.
• The change in the amount of neurotransmitters released by the photoreceptors affects the
activity of these cells.
3. Horizontal Cells:
• Their dendrites spread horizontally and make contact with multiple photoreceptor cells.
They are a part of the lateral pathway.
• Function: modulate the function of the photoreceptor cells in
1. Enhancing contrast
2. Adapting to changes in the lighting
4. Amacrine Cells:
• They make contact with the bipolar cells, ganglion cells and other amacrine cells. They
are a part of the lateral pathway.
• Function: Similar to horizontal cells
1. Enhances the contrast effect
2. Establishes the basis of movement detection
5. Ganglion Cells:
• The visual information that need to reach the cortex for visual processing is carried by
these cells.
• The ganglion cells whose axons leave the eye in a bundle at a region called as the optic
disc.
• There are no photoreceptors where the optic nerve exists the eye. Hence, this spot is know
as the blind spot.
• The ganglion cells leave the retina forming the optic nerve.
Direct Pathway:
Lateral Pathway:
VISUAL FIELD
• The part of the world one can see without moving their head is the visual field.
• It is divided into left and right visual hemifields.
• Left visual field: Left nasal retina + Right temporal retina
• Right visual field: Right nasal retina + Left temporal retina
• Binocular visual field: A visual field which is put together by the brain with input from
both eyes.
VISUAL PATHWAY
Fibers from nasal part of
Retinal ganglion cells retina (60%) decussate to
Extend backwards till just
leave the eye forming the the opposite side. Fibers
below the hypothalamus
optic nerve via the optic from temporal part of
called the optic chiasm
disc retina (40%) stay on the
same side.
Optic tract contains Axons in the optic
retinal ganglion cells tract terminate in the
from the the four nuclei within the
temporal half of the Hence, information brain.
After the optic
ipsilateral retina and from the right visual 1. Lateral geniculate
chiasm, the visual
the nasal half of the field travel to the left nuclei
fibers are called the
contralateral retina. side of the cortex and
optic tract 2. Superior colliculus
Hence, providing info vice-versa.
regarding the 3. Pretectum
contralateral visual 4. Suprachiasmatic
field. nuclei
VISUAL PATHWAY
1. Lateral Geniculate Nucleus:
• Most of the optic tract terminates here
• Has 6 principle layers of cells
1-2: Magnocellular (mLGN): largest cells
3-6: Parvocellular (pLGN): smaller cells
Between 2 & 3: Koniocellular (kLGN): smallest cells
• mLGN: color insensitive and very sensitive to movements of visual field
• pLGN: color sensitive, contrast and shape discrimination
• kLGN: most color sensitive & well suitable for discriminating shape
Travel through the
temporal, occipital and
parietal lobe
• Sublenticular
(representing inferior
Optic tract fibers from Axons from LGN fan retinal quadrant:
each eye synapse in the out as optic radiations superior visual field)
different layers of the of the internal capsule
reach the inferior part of
LGN. striate cortex
• Retrolenticular
(representing superior
retinal quadrant: inferior
visual field) reach the
superior part of striate
cortex
• All these reach the striate cortex (primary visual cortex: V1): most LGN axons terminate in
V1, All V1 neurons respond to visual stimuli exclusively
• Dysfunction in V1: Blindness (contralateral hemifield), Electrical stimulation of V1: Elicits
visual sensation
• Function: initial cortical processing of all visual information necessary for visual
perception, processing info from the thalamus regarding color, shape and movement
Extrastriate Cortex:
• Includes all of the occipital lobe and areas surrounding the primary visual cortex.
• Function: Higher visual perception like recognizing objects, color, movt of objects
• V1 send input to the extrastriate cortex
• Dorsal Stream (Superior cortex): detection of movement, infor to locate the object
• Ventral Stream (Inferior cortical area): detect, identify and use color and shape
Visual Association Area:
All the input goes to the association cortex which form the extrastriata cortex to encompass
adjacent areas of the posterior-parietal lobe and the posterior temporal lobe
• Posterior parietal lobe
• Middle and superior temporal gyrus
• Posterior inf and middle temporal gyrus
• Inferior temporal gyrus
Function:
• Color, shape location and motion information
2. Pretectum (Midbrain)
• Some of the fibers go to the Edinger-Westphal nucleus and allow for the parasympathetic
innervation of the pupil i.e. pupillary constriction also know as the Light reflex.
Pathway:
Pass posteriorly to Form the dorsal Terminate in the
Optic tract become the optic optic radiation and primary visual
radiation the meyers loop cortex
Light Reflex:
Pretectal
nucleus
(midbrain) :
Edinger- Direct the
some fibers Efferent:
Afferent: Optic Westphal pupillary
decussate to Oculomotor Ciliary ganglion
Nerve nucleus sphincter
the opposite Nerve
(midbrain) muscle
side before
reaching the
next nucleus
3. Superior Colliculus (Midbrain):
• Controls eye movement
4. Suprachiasmatic Nuclei (Hypothalamus):
• Circadian rhythm and hormonal changes
Thank You
