Elementary Linear Algebra

Anton & Rorres, 9th Edition

Chapter 4:

General Vector Spaces

Chapter Content
 4.1 Real Vector Spaces
 4.2 Subspaces
 4.3 Linear Independence
 4.4 Coordinates and Basis
 4.5 Dimension
 4.6 Change of Basis
 4.7 Row Space, Column Space, and Nullspace
 4.8 Rank, Nullity, and the fundamental Matrix Spaces
 4.9 Basic Matrix Transformation in R2 and R3
 4.10 Properties of Matrix Transformation
 4.11 Application: Geometry of Matrix Operators on R2
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 2
4-1 Vector Space
 Let V be an arbitrary nonempty set of objects on which
two operations are defined:
 Addition
 Multiplication by scalars

 If the following axioms are satisfied by all objects u, v, w

in V and all scalars k and l, then we call V a vector space
and we call the objects in V vectors.

 (see Next Slide)

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 3

4-1 Vector Space (continue)
1. If u and v are objects in V, then u + v is in V.
2. u+v=v+u
3. u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w
4. There is an object 0 in V, called a zero vector for V, such that 0 +
u = u + 0 = u for all u in V.
5. For each u in V, there is an object -u in V, called a negative of u,
such that u + (-u) = (-u) + u = 0.
6. If k is any scalar and u is any object in V, then ku is in V.
7. k (u + v) = ku + kv
8. (k + l) u = ku + lu
9. k (lu) = (kl) (u)
10. 1u = u

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 4

4-1 Remarks
 Depending on the application, scalars may be real numbers or
complex numbers.
 Vector spaces in which the scalars are complex numbers are
called complex vector spaces, and those in which the scalars must
be real are called real vector spaces.
 Any kind of object can be a vector, and the operations of
addition and scalar multiplication may not have any
relationship or similarity to the standard vector operations on
Rn.
 The only requirement is that the ten vector space axioms be
satisfied.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 5

4-1 Example 1 (Rn Is a Vector Space)
 The set V = Rn with the standard operations of addition
and scalar multiplication is a vector space.

 Axioms 1 and 6 follow from the definitions of the

standard operations on Rn; the remaining axioms follow
from Theorem 4.1.1.

 The three most important special cases of Rn are R (the

real numbers), R2 (the vectors in the plane), and R3 (the
vectors in 3-space).

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 6

4-1 Example 2 (22 Matrices)
 Show that the set V of all 22 matrices with real entries is a vector
space if vector addition is defined to be matrix addition and vector
scalar multiplication is defined to be matrix scalar multiplication.

u11 u12   v11 v12 

 Let u    and v   
u
 21 u 22  v v
 21 22 
 To prove Axiom 1, we must show that u + v is an object in V; that
is, we must show that u + v is a 22 matrix.
u11 u12   v11 v12   u11  v11 u12  v12 
uv       
u
 21 u 22  v v u 
 21 22   21 21 v u 22  v 22 

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 7

4-1 Example 2 (continue)
 Similarly, Axiom 6 hold because for any real number k we have
u11 u12   ku11 ku12 
ku  k    
u u
 21 22   21ku ku 22 

so that ku is a 22 matrix and consequently is an object in V.

 Axioms 2 follows from Theorem 1.4.1a since

u11 u12   v11 v12   v11 v12  u11 u12 

uv           vu
u21 u22  v21 v22  v21 v22  u21 u22 
 Similarly, Axiom 3 follows from part (b) of that theorem; and
Axioms 7, 8, and 9 follow from part (h), (j), and (l), respectively.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 8

4-1 Example 2 (continue)
0 0 
 To prove Axiom 4, let 0   
 0 0 
Then
0 0 u11 u12  u11 u12 
0u        u
0 0 u21 u22  u21 u22 
Similarly, u + 0 = u.
  u11  u12 
To prove Axiom 5, let  u  
 u22 

 u21
Then
u11 u12    u11  u12  0 0
u  (u)        0
u21 u22   u21  u22  0 0
Similarly, (-u) + u = 0.
 For Axiom 10, 1u = u.
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 9
4-1 Example 3(Vector Space of mn
Matrices)
 The arguments in Example 2 can be adapted to show that

the set V of all mn matrices with real entries, together

with the operations matrix addition and scalar
multiplication, is a vector space.
 The mn zero matrix is the zero vector 0
 If u is the mn matrix u, then matrix –u is the negative –u
of the vector u.

 We shall denote this vector space by the symbol Mmn

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 10

4-1 Example 4 (continue)
 The value of k f at x is k times the value
of f at x (Figure 4.1.1 b).
 This vector space is denoted by F(-,).
If f and g are vectors in this space, then
to say that f = g is equivalent to saying
that f(x) = g(x) for all x in the interval (-
,).

 The vector 0 in F(-,) is the constant

function that identically zero for all value
of x.
 The negative of a vector f is the function
–f = -f(x). Geometrically, the graph of –f
is the reflection of the graph of f across
the x-axis (Figure 4.1.c).
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 12
4-1 Example 5 (Not a Vector Space)
 Let V = R2 and define addition and scalar multiplication
operations as follows: If u = (u1, u2) and v = (v1, v2), then
define
u + v = (u1 + v1, u2 + v2)
and if k is any real number, then define
k u = (k u1, 0)
 There are values of u for which Axiom 10 fails to hold.
For example, if u = (u1, u2) is such that u2 ≠ 0,then
1u = 1 (u1, u2) = (1 u1, 0) = (u1, 0) ≠ u
 Thus, V is not a vector space with the stated operations.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 13

4-1 Example 6
 Every Plane Through the Origin Is a Vector Space
 Let V be any plane through the origin in R 3. Since R3 itself is a
vector space, Axioms 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, and 10 hold for all points in R 3
and consequently for all points in the plane V.
 We need only show that Axioms 1, 4, 5, and 6 are satisfied.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 14

4-1 Example 7 (The Zero Vector Space)
 Let V consist of a single object, which we denote by 0,
and define 0 + 0 = 0 and k 0 = 0 for all scalars k.
 We called this the zero vector space.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 15

Theorem 4.1.1
 Let V be a vector space, u be a vector in V, and k a
scalar; then:
 0 u = 0

 k 0 = 0

 (-1) u = -u

 If k u = 0 , then k = 0 or u = 0.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 16

Chapter Content
 Real Vector Spaces
 Subspaces
 Linear Independence
 Basis and Dimension
 Row Space, Column Space, and Nullspace
 Rank and Nullity

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 17

 4-2 Subspaces
 A subset W of a vector space V is called a subspace of V if W is itself a
vector space under the addition and scalar multiplication defined on V.

 Theorem 4.2.1
 If W is a set of one or more vectors from a vector space V, then W is
a subspace of V if and only if the following conditions hold:
a) If u and v are vectors in W, then u + v is in W.

b) If k is any scalar and u is any vector in W , then ku is in W.

 Remark
 W is a subspace of V if and only if W is a closed under addition

(condition (a)) and closed under scalar multiplication (condition (b)).

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 18

4-2 Example 1
 Let W be any plane through the
origin and let u and v be any
vectors in W.
 u + v must lie in W since it is the
diagonal of the parallelogram
determined by u and v, and k u
must line in W for any scalar k
since k u lies on a line through u.


 Thus, W is closed under addition

and scalar multiplication, so it is
a subspace of R3.
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 19
4-2 Example 2
 A line through the origin of R3 is a subspace of R3.

 Let W be a line through the origin of R3.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 20

4-2 Example 3 (Not a Subspace)
 Let W be the set of all points
(x, y) in R2 such that x  0
and y  0. These are the
points in the first quadrant.
 The set W is not a subspace
of R2 since it is not closed
under scalar multiplication.
 For example, v = (1, 1) lines
in W, but its negative (-1)v =
-v = (-1, -1) does not.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 21

4-2 Subspace Remarks
Think about “set” and “empty set”!
 Every nonzero vector space V has at least two subspace: V itself is a
subspace, and the set {0} consisting of just the zero vector in V is a
subspace called the zero subspace.
 Examples of subspaces of R2 and R3:
 Subspaces of R2:
 {0}

 Lines through the origin

 R2

 Subspaces of R3:
 {0}

 Lines through the origin

 Planes through origin

 R3

 They are actually the only subspaces of R2 and R3

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 22
4-2 Example 5
 A subspace of polynomials of degree  n
 Let n be a nonnegative integer
 Let W consist of all functions expression in the form
p(x) = a0+a1x+…+anxn
=> W is a subspace of the vector space of all real-valued
functions discussed in Example 4 of the preceding section.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 24

4-2 Solution Space
 Solution Space of Homogeneous Systems
 If Ax = b is a system of the linear equations, then each
vector x that satisfies this equation is called a solution
vector of the system.
 Theorem 4.2.2 shows that the solution vectors of a
homogeneous linear system form a vector space, which we
shall call the solution space of the system.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 25

Theorem 4.2.2
 If Ax = 0 is a homogeneous linear system of m
equations in n unknowns, then the set of solution
vectors is a subspace of Rn.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 26

4-2 Example 7
 Find the solution spaces of the linear systems.
1 - 2 3   x  0 1 - 2 3   x  0
(a) 
 2 - 4 6   y   0
     (b) 
 -3 7 8   y   0
    

3 - 6 9   
z  
0
 
-2 4 -6   
z  
0
1 - 2 3   x  0 0 0 0   x  0
(c) 
 -3 7 -8   y   0
     (d) 
 0 0 0   y   0
    

4 1 2   
z  
0
 
0 0 0   
z  
0

 Each of these systems has three unknowns, so the solutions form

subspaces of R3.
 Geometrically, each solution space must be a line through the origin,
a plane through the origin, the origin only, or all of R3.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 27

4-2 Example 7 (continue)
Solution.
(a) x = 2s - 3t, y = s, z = t
x = 2y - 3z or x – 2y + 3z = 0
This is the equation of the plane through the origin with
n = (1, -2, 3) as a normal vector.
(b) x = -5t , y = -t, z =t
which are parametric equations for the line through the origin parallel
to the vector v = (-5, -1, 1).
(c) The solution is x = 0, y = 0, z = 0, so the solution space is the origin
only, that is {0}.
(d) The solution are x = r , y = s, z = t, where r, s, and t have arbitrary
values, so the solution space is all of R3.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 28

4-2 Linear Combination
 A vector w is a linear combination of the vectors v1, v2,…, vr if
it can be expressed in the form w = k1v1 + k2v2 + · · · + kr vr
where k1, k2, …, kr are scalars.

 Example 8 (Vectors in R3 are linear combinations of i, j, and k)

 Every vector v = (a, b, c) in R3 is expressible as a linear

combination of the standard basis vectors

i = (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0), k = (0, 0, 1)
since
v = a(1, 0, 0) + b(0, 1, 0) + c(0, 0, 1) = a i + b j + c k

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 29

Theorem 4.2.3
 If v1, v2, …, vr are vectors in a vector space V, then:
 The set W of all linear combinations of v1, v2, …, vr is a subspace
of V.
 W is the smallest subspace of V that contain v1, v2, …, vr in the
sense that every other subspace of V that contain v1, v2, …, vr
must contain W.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 31

4-2 Linear Combination and Spanning
 If S = {v1, v2, …, vr} is a set of vectors in a vector space V,
then the subspace W of V containing of all linear combination
of these vectors in S is called the space spanned by v1, v2, …,
vr, and we say that the vectors v1, v2, …, vr span W.

 To indicate that W is the space spanned by the vectors in the

set S = {v1, v2, …, vr}, we write W = span(S) or W = span{v1,
v2, …, vr}.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 32

4-2 Example 10
 If v1 and v2 are non-collinear vectors in R3 with their initial points at
the origin
 span{v , v }, which consists of all linear combinations k v + k v
1 2 1 1 2 2
is the plane determined by v1 and v2.
 Similarly, if v is a nonzero vector in R2 and R3, then span{v}, which
is the set of all scalar multiples kv, is the linear determined by v.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 33

4-2 Example 11
 Spanning set for Pn
 The polynomials 1, x, x2, …, xn span the vector space Pn
defined in Example 5

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 34

4-2 Example 12
 Determine whether v1 = (1, 1, 2), v2 = (1, 0, 1), and v3 = (2, 1, 3)
span the vector space R3.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 35

Theorem 4.2.4
 If S = {v1, v2, …, vr} and S = {w1, w2, …, wr} are two
sets of vector in a vector space V, then
span{v1, v2, …, vr} = span{w1, w2, …, wr}
if and only if
each vector in S is a linear combination of these in S and
each vector in S is a linear combination of these in S.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 36

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 37
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 38
Chapter Content
 Real Vector Spaces
 Subspaces
 Linear Independence
 Basis and Dimension
 Row Space, Column Space, and Nullspace
 Rank and Nullity

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 39

4.3 Linearly Dependent & Independent
 If S = {v1, v2, …, vr} is a nonempty set of vector,
 then the vector equation k1v1 + k2v2 + … + krvr = 0 has at
least one solution, namely k1 = 0, k2 = 0, … , kr = 0.
 If this the only solution, then S is called a linearly
independent set. If there are other solutions, then S is called
a linearly dependent set.

 Example 1
 If v1 = (2, -1, 0, 3), v2 = (1, 2, 5, -1), and v3 = (7, -1, 5, 8).
 Then the set of vectors S = {v1, v2, v3} is linearly dependent,
since 3v1 + v2 – v3 = 0.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 40

4.3 Example 3
 Let i = (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0), and k = (0, 0, 1) in R3.
 Consider the equation k i + k j + k k = 0
1 2 3
 k1(1, 0, 0) + k2(0, 1, 0) + k3(0, 0, 1) = (0, 0, 0)
 (k1, k2, k3) = (0, 0, 0)
 The set S = {i, j, k} is linearly independent.

 Similarly the vectors

e1 = (1, 0, 0, …,0), e2 = (0, 1, 0, …, 0), …, en = (0, 0, 0, …, 1)
form a linearly independent set in Rn.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 41

4.3 Example 4
 Determine whether the vectors
v1 = (1, -2, 3), v2 = (5, 6, -1), v3 = (3, 2, 1)
form a linearly dependent set or a linearly independent set.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 42

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 43
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 44
4.3 Example 5
 Show that the polynomials
 1, x, x2,…, xn form a linear independent set of vectors in Pn

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 45

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 46
Theorem 4.3.1
 A set with two or more vectors is:
 Linearly dependent if and only if at least one of the vectors
in S is expressible as a linear combination of the other
vectors in S.

 Linearly independent if and only if no vector in S is

expressible as a linear combination of the other vectors in
S.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 47

4.3 Example 6
 If v1 = (2, -1, 0, 3), v2 = (1, 2, 5, -1), and v3 = (7, -1, 5, 8).
 the set of vectors S = {v , v , v } is linearly dependent
1 2 3

 In this example each vector is expressible as a linear

combination of the other two since it follows from the
equation 3v1+v2-v3=0 that

v1=-1/3v2+1/3v3,
v2=-3 v1+v3, and
v3=3v1+v2

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 48

4.3 Example 7
 Let i = (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0), and k = (0, 0, 1) in R3.
 The set S = {i, j, k} is linearly independent.

 Suppose that k is expressible as k=k1i+k2j

Then, in terms of components,
(0, 0, 1)=k1(1, 0, 0)+k2(0, 1, 0) or (0, 0, 1)=(k1, k2, 0)

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 49

Theorem 4.3.2
 A finite set of vectors that contains the zero vector is linearly
dependent.
 A set with exactly two vectors is linearly independently if and
only if neither vector is a scalar multiple of the other.

Example 8
 The functions f1=x and f2=sin x form a linear independent
set of vectors in F(-, ).

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 50

4.3 Geometric Interpretation of Linear
Independence
 In R2 and R3, a set of two vectors is linearly independent if and

only if the vectors do not lie on the same line when they are
placed with their initial points at the origin.
 In R3, a set of three vectors is linearly independent if and only
if the vectors do not lie in the same plane when they are placed
with their initial points at the origin.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 51

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 52
Linear Independence of Functions

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 53

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 54
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 55
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 56
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 57
Chapter Content
 Real Vector Spaces
 Subspaces
 Linear Independence
 Coordinates, Basis and Dimension
 Row Space, Column Space, and Nullspace
 Rank and Nullity

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 58

4-4 Basis for a Vector Space
 If V is any vector space and S = {v1, v2, …,vn} is a set of
vectors in V, then S is called a basis for V if the following
two conditions hold:
 S is linearly independent.
 S spans V.

 Theorem 5.4.1 (Uniqueness of Basis Representation)

 If S = {v , v , …,v } is a basis for a vector space V, then
1 2 n
every vector v in V can be expressed in the form
v = c1v1 + c2v2 + … + cnvn
in exactly one way.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 62

 4-4 Coordinates Relative to a Basis
 If S = {v1, v2, …, vn} is a basis for a vector space V, and
v = c1v1 + c2v2 + ··· + cnvn
is the expression for a vector v in terms of the basis S, then the
scalars c1, c2, …, cn, are called the coordinates of v relative to the
basis S.

 The vector (c1, c2, …, cn) in Rn constructed from these coordinates is

called the coordinate vector of v relative to S; it is denoted by
(v)S = (c1, c2, …, cn)

 Remark:
 Coordinate vectors depend not only on the basis S but also on the

order in which the basis vectors are written.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 63
 4-4 Example 1 (Standard Basis for
 RSuppose
3
) that i = (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0), and k = (0, 0, 1)
 S = {i, j, k} is a linearly independent set in R3.
 S also spans R3 since any vector v = (a, b, c) in R3 can be written as
v = (a, b, c) = a(1, 0, 0) + b(0, 1, 0) + c(0, 0, 1) = ai + bj + ck

 Thus, S is a basis for R3; it is called the standard basis for R3.

 Looking at the coefficients of i, j, and k,

(v)S = (a, b, c)
 Comparing this result to v = (a, b, c),
v = (v)S

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 64

4-4 Example 2 (Standard Basis for
RIfn)e = (1, 0, 0, …, 0), e = (0, 1, 0, …, 0), …, e = (0, 0, 0, …, 1),

1 2 n
 S = {e1, e2, …, en} is a linearly independent set in Rn
 S also spans Rn since any vector v = (v1, v2, …, vn) in Rn can be
written as
v = v1e1 + v2e2 + … + vnen

 Thus, S is a basis for Rn; it is called the standard basis for Rn.

 The coordinates of v = (v1, v2, …, vn) relative to the standard basis

are v1, v2, …, vn, thus
(v)S = (v1, v2, …, vn) => v = (v)s

 A vector v and its coordinate vector relative to the standard basis for
Rn are the same.
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 65
4-4 Example 3
 Let v1 = (1, 2, 1), v2 = (2, 9, 0), and v3 = (3, 3, 4).
Show that the set S = {v1, v2, v3} is a basis for R3.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 66

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 67
 4-4 Example 4
(Representing a Vector Using Two
 Bases)
Let S = {v , v , v } be the basis for R in the preceding example.
3
1 2 3
 Find the coordinate vector of v = (5, -1, 9) with respect to S.
 Find the vector v in R3 whose coordinate vector with respect to
the basis S is (v)s = (-1, 3, 2).

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 68

4-4 Example 5(Standard Basis for
Pn )
 S = {1, x, x2, …, xn} is a basis for the vector space Pn of
polynomials of the form a0 + a1x + … + anxn. The set S
is called the standard basis for Pn.
Find the coordinate vector of the polynomial p = a0 +
a1x + a2x2 relative to the basis S = {1, x, x2} for P2 .

 Solution:
 The coordinates of p = a0 + a1x + a2x2 are the scalar
coefficients of the basis vectors 1, x, and x2, so
(p)s=(a0, a1, a2).
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 69
4-4 Example 6 (Standard Basis for
MLet
 ) 1 0 
mnM   1
0 1 
, M  
0 0
, M  
2
0 0
, M    3 4
0 0 0 0 1 0  0 1 
 The set S = {M1, M2, M3, M4} is a basis for the vector space M22 of
2×2 matrices.
a b 
 To see that S spans M22, note that an arbitrary vector (matrix) c d 
 
can be written as
a b  1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 
c d   a  b  c
 0 0   0 0  1 0   d 0 1  aM 1  bM 2  cM 3  dM 4
         

 To see that S is linearly independent, assume aM1 + bM2 + cM3 + dM4

 a b  0 0 
= 0. It follows that  c d   0. Thus,
 a = b = c = d = 0, so S is
lin. indep.    0

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 70

4-4 Example 7
(Basis for the Subspace span(S))
 If S = {v1, v2, …,vn} is a linearly independent set in a
vector space V, then S is a basis for the subspace span(S)

since the set S span span(S) by definition of span(S).

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 71

 4-4 Finite-Dimensional
 A nonzero vector V is called finite-dimensional
 if it contains a finite set of vector {v1, v2, …,vn} that forms a
basis.
 If no such set exists, V is called infinite-dimensional.
 In addition, we shall regard the zero vector space to be finite-
dimensional.

 Example 8
 The vector spaces Rn, Pn, and Mmn are finite-dimensional.
 The vector spaces F(-, ), C(- , ), Cm(- , ), and C∞(- ,
) are infinite-dimensional.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 72

Theorem 4.4.2 & 4.4.3
 Theorem 4.4.2
 Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space and {v1, v2,
…,vn} any basis.
 If a set has more than n vector, then it is linearly dependent.
 If a set has fewer than n vector, then it does not span V.

 Theorem 4.4.3
 All bases for a finite-dimensional vector space have the
same number of vectors.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 73

4-5 Dimension
 The dimension of a finite-dimensional vector space V,
denoted by dim(V), is defined to be the number of vectors
in a basis for V.
 We define the zero vector space to have dimension zero.

 Dimensions of Some Vector Spaces:

 dim(Rn) = n [The standard basis has n vectors]
 dim(Pn) = n + 1 [The standard basis has n + 1 vectors]
 dim(Mmn) = mn [The standard basis has mn vectors]

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 74

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 75
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 76
4-5 Example 10
 Determine a basis for and the dimension of the solution space
of the homogeneous system
2x1 + 2x2 – x3 + x5 = 0
-x1 + x2 + 2x3 – 3x4 + x5 = 0
x1 + x2 – 2x3 – x5 = 0
x3 + x4 + x5 = 0
 Solution:
 The general solution of the given system is

x1 = -s-t, x2 = s,
x3 = -t, x4 = 0, x5 = t
 Therefore, the solution vectors can be written as

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 77

Theorem 4.55.4 (Plus/Minus Theorem)
 Let S be a nonempty set of vectors in a vector space V.
 If S is a linearly independent set, and
 if v is a vector in V that is outside of span(S),
 then the set S  {v} that results by inserting v into S is still

linearly independent.
 If v is a vector in S that is expressible as a linear combination
of other vectors in S,
 and if S – {v} denotes the set obtained by removing v from S,
 then S and S – {v} span the same space; that is, span(S) =

span(S – {v})

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 78

Theorem 4.5.5
 If V is an n-dimensional vector space, and if S is a set in V
with exactly n vectors
 then S is a basis for V if either S spans V or S is linearly

independent.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 79

Some Fundamental Theorems

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 80

4-5 Example 11
 Show that v1 = (-3, 7) and v2 = (5, 5) form a basis for R2 by
inspection.
 Solution:
 Neither vector is a scalar multiple of the other

 The two vectors form a linear independent set in the 2-D

space R2
 The two vectors form a basis by Theorem 5.4.5.

 Show that v1 = (2, 0, 1) , v2 = (4, 0, 7), v3 = (-1, 1, 4) form a basis

for R3 by inspection.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 81

 Theorem 4.5.6
 Let S be a finite set of vectors in a finite-dimensional vector
space V.
 If S spans V but is not a basis for V
 then S can be reduced to a basis for V by removing
appropriate vectors from S
 If S is a linearly independent set that is not already a basis for V
 then S can be enlarged to a basis for V by inserting
appropriate vectors into S

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 82

Theorem 4.5.7
 If W is a subspace of a finite-dimensional vector space V,
then dim(W)  dim(V).
 If dim(W) = dim(V), then W = V.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 83

 4.6 Coordinates and Change of Basis
 Coordinate representation relative to a basis
Let B = {v1, v2, …, vn} be an ordered basis for a vector space V
and let x be a vector in V such that
x  c1 v1  c2 v 2    cn v n .

The scalars c1, c2, …, cn are called the coordinates of x relative

to the basis B. The coordinate matrix (or coordinate vector)
of x relative to B is the column matrix in Rn whose components
are the coordinates of x.  c1 
c 
xB   2 
 
 
cn 
84/107
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 4.7, p.249
 n
 Ex 1: (Coordinates and components in R )
Find the coordinate matrix of x = (–2, 1, 3) in R3
relative to the standard basis
S = {(1, 0, 0), ( 0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}
Sol:
x  (2, 1, 3)  2(1, 0, 0)  1(0, 1, 0)  3(0, 0, 1),

  2
[x]S   1.
 3

85/107
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 4.7, p.250
  Ex 3: (Finding a coordinate matrix relative to a nonstandard basis)
Find the coordinate matrix of x=(1, 2, –1) in R3
relative to the (nonstandard) basis
B ' = {u1, u2, u3}={(1, 0, 1), (0, – 1, 2), (2, 3, – 5)}
Sol: x  c u  c u  c u  (1, 2,  1)  c (1, 0, 1)  c (0,  1, 2)  c (2, 3,  5)
1 1 2 2 3 3 1 2 3

c1  2c3  1 1 0 2  c1   1
  c2  3c3  2 i.e. 0  1 3 c2    2
c1  2c2  5c3  1  1 2  5 c3   1

1 0 2 1 1 0 0 5  5
 3 2  0 1 0  8

 [ x ]B    8
G.J. E.

 0  1
 1 2  5  1 0 0 1  2  2

86/107
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 4.7, p.251
  Change of basis problem:
You were given the coordinates of a vector relative to one
basis B and were asked to find the coordinates relative to
another basis B'.
 Ex: (Change of basis)
Consider two bases for a vector space V
B  {u1 , u 2 }, B  {u1 , u2 }

a  c 
If [u1 ]B   , [u2 ]B   
b  d 
i.e., u1  au1  bu 2 , u2  cu1  du 2

87/107
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 4.7, p.253
  k1 
Let v  V , [ v ]B   
k 2 
 v  k1u1  k 2u2
 k1 (au1  bu 2 )  k 2 (cu1  du 2 )
 (k1a  k 2 c)u1  (k1b  k 2 d )u 2

 k1a  k 2 c  a c   k1 
 [ v ]B      k 
k
 1 b  k d
2   b d  2 
 u1 B u2 B  v B

88/107
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 4.7, p.253
  Transition matrix from B' to B:
Let B  {u1 , u 2 ,..., u n } and B  {u1 , u2 ..., un } be two bases
for a vector space V

If [v]B is the coordinate matrix of v relative to B

[v]B‘ is the coordinate matrix of v relative to B'

then [ v ]B  P[ v ]B

 u1 B , u2 B ,..., un B  v B

where
P  u1 B , u2 B , ..., un B 
is called the transition matrix from B' to B

89/107
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 4.7, p.255
Transition Matrices

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 90

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 91
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 92
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 93
  Thm 4.20: (The inverse of a transition matrix)
If P is the transition matrix from a basis B' to a basis B in Rn,
then
(1) P is invertible
–1
(2) The transition matrix from B to B' is P


Notes:
B  {u1 , u 2 , ..., u n }, B '  {u1 , u2 , ..., un }
v B  [u1 ]B , [u2 ]B , ..., [un ]B  v B  P v B
v B  [u1 ]B , [u 2 ]B , ..., [u n ]B  v B  P 1 v B

94/107
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 4.7, p.253
  Thm 4.21: (Transition matrix from B to B')
Let B={v1, v2, … , vn} and B' ={u1, u2, … , un} be two bases
n
for R . Then the transition matrix P–1 from B to B' can be
found
BB 

by using Gauss-Jordan elimination on the n×2n matrix

as follows.

B B  I n P 1


95/107
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 4.7, p.255
  Ex 5: (Finding a transition matrix)
B={(–3, 2), (4,–2)} and B' ={(–1, 2), (2,–2)} are two bases
for R2
(a) Find the transition matrix from B' to B.
1 
(b) Let [ v ]B '   , find [ v ]B
 2
(c) Find the transition matrix from B to B' .

96/107
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 4.7, p.257
 Sol:
(a)  3 4  1 2  1 0  3  2
 2  2 0 1  2  1
G.J.E.
 2 2  
B B' I P
 3  2
P    (the transition matrix from B' to B)
2  1 
 1 3  2 1   1
(b) [v ]B     [v ]B  P [v ]B       
 2  2  1   2  0 
 1
Check: [ v]B     v  (1)(1, 2)  (2)(2, 2)  (3, 2)
2
 1
[ v ]B     v  (1)(3, 2)  (0)(4, 2)  (3, 2)
 0

97/107
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 4.7, p.258
 (c)
 1 2  3 4  1 0   1 2
G.J.E.
 2  2  2  2 0 1   2 3
   
-1
B' B I P

  1 2
1
P    (the transition matrix from B to B')
  2 3 

Check:
 3  2   1 2  1 0
1
PP         I2
2  1  2 3 0 1

98/107
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 4.7, p.259
  Ex 6: (Coordinate representation in P3(x))
(a) Find the coordinate matrix of p = 3x3-2x2+4 relative to the
standard basis S = {1, x, x2, x3} in P3(x).
(b) Find the coordinate matrix of p = 3x3-2x2+4 relative to the
basis S = {1, 1+x, 1+ x2, 1+ x3} in P3(x).
Sol:  4
 0
(a) p  (4)(1)  (0)( x)  (-2)(x 2 )  (3)( x 3 )  [ p ]B   
  2
 
 3  3
 0
(b) p  (3)(1)  (0)(1  x)  (-2)(1 x 2 )  (3)(1 x 3 )  [ p ]B   
  2
 
 3
99/107
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 4.7, p.259
  Ex: (Coordinate representation in M2x2)
5 6
Find the coordinate matrix of x = 7 8relative
 to
the standard basis in M2x2.  

1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 
B =   ,  ,  , 
 0 0   0 0   1 0   0 1 
Sol:
5 6 1 0   0 1   0 0   0 0 
x   5   6   7   8 
7 8  0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
5 
6 
 x B   
7 
 
8 

100/107
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 5.7, Addition
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 101
Invertibility of Transition Matrices

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 102

An Efficient Method for Computing
Transition Matrices for Rn

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 103

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 104
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 105
Transition to the Standard Basis for Rn

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 106

Keywords in Section 4.7:
 coordinates of x relative to B
 coordinate matrix
 coordinate vector
 change of basis problem
 transition matrix from B' to B

107/107
Chapter Content
 Real Vector Spaces
 Subspaces
 Linear Independence
 Basis and Dimension
 Row Space, Column Space, and Nullspace
 Rank and Nullity

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 108

4-7 Row Space, Column Space, and
a a  a 
Nullspace
11 12 1n
 For an mn matrix a a  a 
 
A 21 22 2n

   
 
am1 am 2  amn 
r1  [a11 a12  a1n ]
the vectors r2  [a21 a22  a2 n ]


rm  [am1 am 2  amn ]
in Rn formed form the rows of A are called the row vectors of A, and the
vectors a  a  a 
11 12 1n
a  a  a 
c1   , c 2   ,  , c n   2 n 
21 22

     
     
a
 m1  a
 m2  amn 
in Rm formed from the columns of A are called the column vectors of A.
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 109
4-7 Example 1
2 1 0
 Let A 
 3 1 4 

 The row vectors of A are

r1 = [2 1 0] and r2 = [3 -1 4]
and the column vectors of A are
2 1 0
c1    , c 2    , and c 3   
3  1  4

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 110

4-7 Row Space and Column Space
 If A is an mn matrix
 the subspace of Rn spanned by the row vectors of A is called the
row space of A
 the subspace of Rm spanned by the column vectors is called the
column space of A
 The solution space of the homogeneous system of equation
Ax = 0, which is a subspace of Rn, is called the nullspace of A.
 a11 a12  a1n   a11   a12   a1n 
a a  a  a  a  a 
Amn   21 22 2n 
c1   21 , c 2   22 ,  , c n   2 n 
     
   
       
a
 m1  a
 m2  amn 
am1 am 2  amn 

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 111

4-7 Example 2
 1 3 2   x1   1 
 1 2 3  x    9 
 Let Ax = b be the linear system   2  
 2 1 2   x3   3
Show that b is in the column space of A, and express b as a linear
combination of the column vectors of A.
 Solution:
 Solving the system by Gaussian elimination yields

x1 = 2, x2 = -1, x3 = 3
 Since the system is consistent, b is in the column space of A.
 Moreover, it follows that  1  3   2   1 
2  1    2   3  3   9 
 2  1   2   3

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 112

Theorem
 A system of linear equations Ax = b is consistent
4.5.1
if and only if b is in the column space of A.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 113

Theorem 4.7.2
 If x0 denotes any single solution of a consistent linear
system Ax = b, and if v1, v2, …, vk form a basis for the
nullspace of A, (that is, the solution space of the
homogeneous system Ax = 0),
 then every solution of Ax = b can be expressed in the form
x = x0 + c1v1 + c2v2 + · · · + ckvk
Conversely, for all choices of scalars c1, c2, …, ck the vector x
in this formula is a solution of Ax = b.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 114

4-7 General and Particular Solutions
 Remark
 The vector x0 is called a particular solution of Ax = b
 The expression x0 + c1v1 + · · · + ckvk is called the general solution
of Ax = b
 The expression c1v1 + · · · + ckvk is called the general solution of
Ax = 0
 The general solution of Ax = b
 the sum of any particular solution of Ax = b and the general
solution of Ax = 0

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 115

4-7 Example 3
(General Solution of Ax = b)
 The solution to the The result can be written in vector form as:
nonhomogeneous system
 x1   3r  4s  2t   0   3  4   2 
x     0  1 0 0
x1 + 3x2 – 2x3 + 2x5 =0   
2 r         
2x1 + 6x2 – 5x3 – 2x4 + 4x5 – 3x6 = -1  x3   2s   0   0   2   0 
    
    r    s  t 
5x3 + 10x4 + 15x6 = 5 x
 4  s    0  0 1 0
x   t   0  0 0 1
2x1 + 5x2 + 8x4 + 4x5 + 18x6 = 6 5
           
 x6   1/ 3  1/ 3  0  0 0
is           
x1 = -3r - 4s - 2t, x2 = r, x0 x
x3 = -2s, x4 = s, which is the general solution.
x5 = t, x6 = 1/3
The vector x0 is a particular solution of
nonhomogeneous system Ax = b, and the
linear combination x is the general solution
of the homogeneous system Ax = 0.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 116

Theorem 4.7.3 & 4.7.4
 Elementary row operations do not change the nullspace of a matrix Ax = 0
 Elementary row operations do not change the row space of a matrix.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 117

 4-7 Example 4
 2 2 1 0 1 
 Find a basis for the nullspace of  1 1 2 3 1 
A 
 1 1 2 0 1
 Solution  
 0 0 1 1 1 
 The nullspace of A is the solution space of the homogeneous system

2x1 + 2x2 – x3 + x5 = 0
-x1 – x2 – 2 x3 – 3x4 + x5 = 0
x1 + x2 – 2 x3 – x5 = 0
x3 + x4 + x5 = 0
 In Example 10 of Section 5.4 we showed that the vectors

 1  1
1 0
   
v1   0  and v 2   1
   
 0 0
form a basis for the nullspace.  0   1 

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 118

Bases for Row Spaces, Column Spaces, and Null
Spaces

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 119

Theorem 4.7.5
 If A and B are row equivalent matrices, then:

 A given set of column vectors of A is linearly independent

 the corresponding column vectors of B are linearly
independent.

 A given set of column vectors of A forms a basis for the

column space of A
 the corresponding column vectors of B form a basis for the
column space of B.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 120

Theorem 4.7.6
 If a matrix R is in row echelon form

 the row vectors with the leading 1’s (i.e., the nonzero row
vectors) form a basis for the row space of R

 the column vectors with the leading 1’s of the row vectors
form a basis for the column space of R

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 121

4-7 Example 6
 Find bases for the row spaces of
 1 3 4 2 5 4 
 2 6 9 1 8 2 
A 
 2 6 9 1 9 7 
 
 1 3 4 2 5 4 
 Solution:
Note about the
 Reducing A to row-echelon form we obtain correspondence!
1 3 4 2 5 4 
0 0 1 3 2 6 
R
0 0 0 0 1 5
 
0 0 0 0 0 0

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 123

4-7 Example 7
Basis for the Row Space of a Matrix
 Find a basis for the space spanned by the vectors
v1= (1, -2, 0, 0, 3), v2 = (2, -5, -3, -2, 6),
v3 = (0, 5, 15, 10, 0), v4 = (2, 6, 18, 8, 6).
 Solution: (Write down the vectors as row vectors first!)
1 2 0 0 3 1 2 0 0 3
 2 5 3 2 6  0 1
  3 2 0 
 0 5 15 10 0 0 0 1 1 0
   
 2 6 18 8 6
0 0 0 0 0

 The nonzero row vectors for a basis in this matrix, are:

w1= (1, -2, 0, 0, 3), w2 = (0, 1, 3, 2, 0), w3 = (0, 0, 1, 1, 0)

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 124

Basis for the Column Space of a Matrix

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 125

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 126
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 127
Bases Formed from Row and Column Vectors of a
Matrix

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 128

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 129
4-7 Remarks
 Keeping in mind that A and R may have different column spaces, we
cannot find a basis for the column space of A directly from the
column vectors of R.

 However, it follows from Theorem 5.5.5b that if we can find a set of

column vectors of R that forms a basis for the column space of R,
then the corresponding column vectors of A will form a basis for the
column space of A.

 In the previous example, the basis vectors obtained for the column
space of A consisted of column vectors of A, but the basis vectors
obtained for the row space of A were not all vectors of A.
 Transpose of the matrix can be used to solve this problem.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 130

4-7 Example 8
Basis for the Row Space of a Matrix 1 2 0 0 3
 Find a basis for the row space of consisting entirely of row vectors from A.
 2 5 3 2 6 
A
 0 5 15 10 0
 
 2 6 18 8 6

 1 2 0 2 1 2 0 2 
 2 5 5 6  0 1 5 10 
  
A   0 3 15 18
T
0 0 0 1 
   
 0 2 10 8  0 0 0 0 
 3 6 0 6  0 0 0 0 

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 131

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 132
4-7 Example 9
Basis and Linear Combinations
 (a) Find a subset of the vectors v1 = (1, -2, 0, 3), v2 = (2, -5, -3, 6), v3
= (0, 1, 3, 0), v4 = (2, -1, 4, -7), v5 = (5, -8, 1, 2) that forms a basis for
the subspace R4 spanned by these vectors.
 Solution (a): We begin by constructing a matrix that has v1, v2, . . . , v5 as
its column 1 0 2 01
 1 2 0 2 5 
 2 0 1
 5 1 1  8  1 1 0
 0 3 3 4 1  0 0 0 11
   
 3 6 0 7 2 0 0 0 00
         
v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 w1 w 2 w 3 w 4 w 5
 The leading 1’s occur in columns 1, 2, and 4, so by Theorem 4.7.5,

 Thus, {v1, v2, v4} is a basis for the column space of the matrix.
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 133
4-7 Example 9
 Solution (b) Express each vector not in the basis as a
linear combination of the basis vectors.
 Solution (b):
 express w3 as a linear combination of w1 and w2,
 express w5 as a linear combination of w1, w2, and w4
w3 = 2w1 – w2
w5 = w1 + w2 + w4
 We call these the dependency equations. The corresponding
relationships in the original vectors are
v3 = 2v1 – v2
v3 = v1 + v2 + v4

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 134

Basis for the Spaces Spanned by a Set of Vectors

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 135

Chapter Content
 Real Vector Spaces
 Subspaces
 Linear Independence
 Basis and Dimension
 Row Space, Column Space, and Nullspace
 Rank and Nullity, and the fundamental Matrix Spaces

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 136

4-8 Rank, Nullity, and the fundamental Matrix
Spaces
 Consider a matrix A and its transpose AT together, then there
are six vector spaces of interest:
 row space of A, row space of AT
 column space of A, column space of AT
 null space of A, null space of AT

 However, the fundamental matrix spaces associated with A are

 row space of A, column space of A
 null space of A, null space of AT

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 137

4-8 Four Fundamental Matrix Spaces
 If A is an mn matrix
 the row space of A and nullspace of A are subspaces of Rn
 the column space of A and the nullspace of AT are subspace
of Rm

 What is the relationship between the dimensions of

these four vector spaces?

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 138

4-8 Dimension and Rank
 Theorem 5.6.1
 If A is any matrix, then the row space and column space of
A have the same dimension.

 Definition
 The common dimension of the row and column space of a
matrix A is called the rank of A and is denoted by rank(A).
 The dimension of the nullspace of a is called the nullity of
A and is denoted by nullity(A).

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 139

4-88 Example 1 (Rank and Nullity)
 Find the rank and nullity of the matrix
 1 2 0 4 5 3
 3 7 2 0 1 4 
A 
 2 5 2 4 6 1 
 
 4 9 2 4 4 7 
 Solution:
 The reduced row-echelon form of A is
1 0 4 28 37 13
0 1 2 12 16 5 

0 0 0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0 0 0
 Since there are two nonzero rows, the row space and column
space are both two-dimensional, so rank(A) = 2.
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 140
4-8 Example 1 (Rank and Nullity)
 The corresponding system of equations will be
x1 – 4x3 – 28x4 – 37x5 + 13x6 = 0
x2 – 2x3 – 12x4 – 16 x5+ 5 x6 = 0
 It follows that the general solution of the system is
x1 = 4r + 28s + 37t – 13u, x2 = 2r + 12s + 16t – 5u,
x3 = r, x4 = s, x5 = t, x6 = u
 x1  4  28 37   13
or          
 x2  2 12  16   5 
 x3  1  0 0  0 
   r    s 
   t  u  
x
 4 0
  1
    0  0 
 x5  0 0 1  0 
         
 6 
x  
0    
0 0  1 

 Thus, nullity(A) = 4.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 141

4-8 Theorems
 Theorem 4.6.2
 If A is any matrix, then rank(A) = rank(AT).

 Theorem 4.6.3 (Dimension Theorem for Matrices)

 If A is a matrix with n columns, then rank(A) + nullity(A) = n.

 Theorem 4.6.4
 If A is an mn matrix, then:
 rank(A) = Number of leading variables in the solution of Ax = 0.
 nullity(A) = Number of parameters in the general solution of Ax = 0.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 142

4-8 Example 2
(Sum of Rank and Nullity)
 The matrix
 1 2 0 4 5 3
 3 7 2 0 1 4 
A 
 2 5 2 4 6 1 
 
 4 9 2 4 4 7 
has 6 columns, so
rank(A) + nullity(A) = 6
 This is consistent with the previous example, where we
showed that
rank(A) = 2 and nullity(A) = 4

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 143

4-8 Example
 Find the number of parameters in the general solution of
Ax = 0 if A is a 57 matrix of rank 3.

 Solution:
 nullity(A) = n – rank(A) = 7 – 3 = 4
 Thus, there are four parameters.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 144

4-8 Dimensions of Fundamental Spaces

 Suppose that A is an mn matrix of rank r, then

 AT is an nm matrix of rank r by Theorem 5.6.2
 nullity(A) = n – r, nullity(AT) = m – r by Theorem 5.6.3

Fundamental Space Dimension

Row space of A r
Column space of A r
Nullspace of A n–r
Nullspace of AT m–r

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 145

4-8 Maximum Value for Rank
 If A is an mn matrix
 The row vectors lie in Rn and the column vectors lie in Rm.
 The row space of A is at most n-dimensional and the
column space is at most m-dimensional.

 Since the row and column space have the same dimension (the
rank A), we must conclude that if m  n, then the rank of A is
at most the smaller of the values of m or n.
 That is,
rank(A)  min(m, n)

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 146

Theorem 4.8.5
(The Consistency Theorem)
 If Ax = b is a linear system of m equations in n
unknowns, then the following are equivalent.
 Ax = b is consistent.

 b is in the column space of A.

 The coefficient matrix A and the augmented matrix [A | b]

have the same rank.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 148

Theorems 4.8.6
 If Ax = b is a linear system of m equations in n
unknowns, then the following are equivalent.

 Ax = b is consistent for every m1 matrix b.

 The column vectors of A span Rm.

 rank(A) = m.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 149

4-8 Overdetermined System
 A linear system with more equations than unknowns is
called an overdetermined linear system.

 If Ax = b is an overdetermined linear system of m

equations in n unknowns (so that m > n), then the column
vectors of A cannot span Rm.

 Thus, the overdetermined linear system Ax = b cannot be

consistent for every possible b.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 150

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 151
Theorem 4.8.7
 If Ax = b is consistent linear system of m equations in
n unknowns, and if A has rank r,
 then the general solution of the system contains
n – r parameters.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 154

Theorem 4.8.8

 If A is an mn matrix, then the following are

equivalent.
 Ax = 0 has only the trivial solution.

 The column vectors of A are linearly independent.

 Ax = b has at most one solution (0 or 1) for every m1

matrix b.

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 155

Fundamental Spaces of a Matrix

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 156

A Geometric Link Between the Fundamental
Spaces

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 157

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 158
Theorem 4.8.9 (Equivalent
 If A is an nn matrix, and if T : R  R is multiplication by A, then the following
n n

Statements)
A
are equivalent:
A is invertible.
 Ax = 0 has only the trivial solution.
 The reduced row-echelon form of A is In.
 A is expressible as a product of elementary matrices.
 Ax = b is consistent for every n1 matrix b.
 Ax = b has exactly one solution for every n1 matrix b.
 det(A)≠0.
 The range of TA is Rn.
 TA is one-to-one.
 The column vectors of A are linearly independent.
 The row vectors of A are linearly independent.
 The column vectors of A span Rn.
 The row vectors of A span Rn.
 The column vectors of A form a basis for Rn.
 The row vectors of A form a basis for Rn.
 A has rank n.
 A has nullity 0.
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 160
4.9 Basic Matrix Transformation in R2 and
R3

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 161

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 162
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 163
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 164
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 165
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 166
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 167
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 168
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 169
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 170
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 171
Orthogonal Projections onto Lines Through the Origin

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 172

Reflection About Lines Through the Origin

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 173

4.10 Properties of Matrix Transformations
Composition of Matrix Transformations

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 174

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 175
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 176
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 177
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 178
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 179
One-to-One Matrix Transformations

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 180

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 181
Kernel and Range

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 182

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 183
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 184
Inverse of a One-to-One Matrix
Operator

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 185

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 186
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 187
4.11 Geometry of Matrix Operators on
R2

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 188

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 189
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 190
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 191
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 192
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 193
Geometry of Invertible Matrix Operators

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 194

113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 195
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 196
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 197
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 198
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 199
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 200
113/03/31 Elementary Linear Algebra 201