Chapter 5:

Channel Coding
T E K N O L O G I M A S A D E PA N

AMIN SUHARJONO

T. T E L E K O M U N I K A S I
 Konsep Komunikasi Digital

Ch.2 Ch.3
Ch.5 Ch.4

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 Outline

5.1 General Concept of Channel Coding

5.2 Block Codes
5.3 Convolutional Codes
5.4 Most Recent Codes

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5.1 General Concept of Channel Coding
A. Definition of Error
 An error occurs when a transmitted bit is a 1 and its corresponding received bit
 becomes a 0 or a 0 becomes a 1.
 All digital transmission systems introduce errors
 To reduce the bit error rate is the application of error-control coding through
the calculated use of redundancy.
 The entire field of error-control coding is devoted to the development of
techniques to achieve the performance that Shannon’s channel coding
theorem promised possible.

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5.1 General Concept of Channel Coding
A. Definition of Error
 The acceptability of a bit error rate depends on the application requirement
and the transmission medium performance.
 For instance, bit error rates may be roughly as high as in cellular systems, in
the order of in copper wires, and as high as in fiber optics.
 In order to improve the error rate performance required for an application in a
digital communication system with an unacceptable bit error rate, error-
control coding needs to be employed, but generally at the expense of an
increase in bandwidth requirements.

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5.1 General Concept of Channel Coding
B. Types of Errors
 Two types of errors: random (single-bit) errors and burst (multiplebit) errors.
 In random errors, the bit errors occur independently of each other, and usually
when one bit has changed, its neighbouring bits remain correct (unchanged).
 Examples :
 shot noise in the transmitting and receiving equipment
 thermal noise in free-space communication channel
 additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN)

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5.1 General Concept of Channel Coding
B. Types of Errors
 In burst errors, two or more bits in a row have usually changed
 Examples:
 magnetic recording channels (tape or disk)
 impulse noise due to lightening and switching transients in radio channels,
 mobile fading channels
 A burst error is more common to occur than a random error.

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5.1 General Concept of Channel Coding
C. Methods of Controlling Errors
 The central concept in detecting and/or correcting errors is adding redundancy
 The transmitter sends the information bits along with some extra (also
known as parity) bits.
 The receiver uses the redundant bits to detect or correct corrupted bits,
and then removes the redundant bits.
 1) Error detection:
 Only to find out if errors have occurred.
 Error detection may result in data rejection.
 The prerequisite to the retransmission request.
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5.1 General Concept of Channel Coding
C. Methods of Controlling Errors
 2) Error Correction:
 Need to find out which bits are in error, i.e., to determine their locations in
the received bit stream.
 In other words, the initial part of error correction is inherently error
detection.
 The techniques known as forward error correction (FEC) coding techniques.
 FEC codes more complex than error-detecting codes
 Require more redundancy (parity) bits.
 Generally yields a lower bit error rate, but at the expense of significantly
higher transmission bandwidth and more decoding complexity.
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5.1 General Concept of Channel Coding
D. Classes of Codes
 Error control codes are divided into two broad classes:
 block codes
 convolutional codes
 Concatenated codes (combination block and convolutional codes)
 Block codes
 a block of k information bits is followed by r(=n-k) check bits that are exclusively
derived from the block of information bits.
 Convolutional codes
 Check bits are continuously interleaved with information bits
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5.1 General Concept of Channel Coding
D. Classes of Codes
 Decoding of a code: hard decisions or soft decisions
 Hard decisions
 demodulation outputs only a symbol value for each received symbol
 employ minimum Hamming distance (the number of bits in which n-bit codewords differ)
 Soft decisions
 demodulation outputs an estimate of the received symbol value along with an indication
of the reliability of this value using multi-level quantization.
 utilize minimum Euclidean distance (the distance between the received and transmitted
signals in n-dimensional Euclidean space).

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5.1 General Concept of Channel Coding
E. Error-detection Methods
 Parity-Check Codes
 extra bit is added to every data unit
 The objective of adding the parity bit (a 0 or a 1) is to make the total number of 1s in the
data unit (including the parity bit) to become even.
 Checksum
 calculated using one’s complement arithmetic
 if there is a carry in the most significant bit, the carry bit back to the least significant bit.
 Cyclic redundancy check (CRC)
 used to detect data units, such as packets, especially with burst
 CRC is based on modulo-2 division

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5.2 Linear Block Codes
A. General Concept
 Linear block codes are the most important and widely used class of block codes.
 A block code is linear if any linear combination of two codewords is a codeword.
 In the binary case, this means that the sum of any two codewords is a codeword.
 In linear block codes the codewords form a -dimensional subspace of an -dimensional
space.
 Linear block codes are described in terms of a generator matrix , which is a binary matrix
such that each codeword can be written in the form

 where is the binary data sequence of length (the encoder input).

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5.2 Linear Block Codes
A. General Concept
 An important to determine the error-correcting capabilities of a block code, is the minimum
(Hamming) distance
 The minimum distance:

 For linear codes the minimum distance is equal to the minimum weight of the code

 that is, the minimum number of 1 's in any nonzero codeword

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 5.2 Linear Block Codes
A. General Concept
 Example 1: => =
 Determine all the codewords and
the minimum weight of the code for
the (6,3) code with generator matrix:

 The minimum weight = 3

 Answer :
 General form:
 = all possible binary sequence of length
3 bit

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5.2 Linear Block Codes
A. General Concept
 Example 2:
 The generator matrix for a ( 1 0, 4) linear block code is given by

 Determine all the codewords and the minimum weight of the code

 Answer :
 See Proakis et.al. (2012), page 444 (Illustrative Problem 10.8)

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5.2 Linear Block Codes
A. General Concept
 Exercise 1:
a) Determine all codewords for a (6, 3) systematic linear block code whose generator matrix is as follows:
=
b) Calculate the minimum weight of the code

 Exercise 2:
a) Determine all codewords for a (7, 4) systematic linear block code whose generator matrix is as follows:

 b) Calculate the minimum weight of the code

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5.2 Linear Block Codes
B. Well-Known Linear Block Codes
 Repetition codes
 Bose-Chaudhuri-Hocquenghem (BCH) codes
 Hamming codes
 Reed-Solomon (RS) codes

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5.3 Convolutional Codes
A. General Concept
 Expressed as a three-tuple with:
 output bits
 input bits
 delayed (memory) bits
 This technique of coding as bit by bit shifted multiplication, followed by superposition.
 The operation is very much similar to that of shifting, multiply through window and
addition. That’s why the technique is named as convolutional coding.
 The current outputs are linear combinations of the present input bits and the previous
input bits.

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5.3 Convolutional Codes
B. Encoder
 A binary convolutional encoder :
 a combination of shift registers and modulo-2 adders (XOR)
 the output bits are modular-2 additions of selective shift register contents and present input bits.
 Example 3:  Example 4:
 Encoder for binary (2,1,2) convolutional code  Encoder for binary (3,2,2) convolutional code

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5.3 Convolutional Codes
B. Encoder
 Example 5:
 Determine the output of the convolutional encoder shown in following figure

when the information sequence is: 10011100110000111

Answer: See Proakis et.al. (2012), page 458, Illustrative Problem 10.13

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5.3 Convolutional Codes
B. Encoder
 Exercise 3:

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5.3 Convolutional Codes
B. Encoder
 Exercise 4:

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5.3 Convolutional Codes
C. Trellis Diagram
 A convolutional code can be represented by either the structure of the encoder or G, the
generator matrix.
 Another method for representing a convolutional codes is trellis diagram.
 A trellis diagram is a state transition diagram plotted versus time.

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5.3 Convolutional Codes
C. Trellis Diagram
 Example 6: A convolutional encoder Answer:
is shown as follow. Determine the
trellis diagram

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5.3 Convolutional Codes
C. Trellis Diagram
 Exercise 5: Determine the trellis diagram of  Exercise 6: Determine the trellis diagram
the following Convolutional Code: of the following Convolutional Code:

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5.3 Convolutional Codes
D. Viterbi Decoder
 There exist many algorithms for decoding of convolutional codes.
 The Viterbi algorithm is probably the most widely used decoding method.
 This algorithm is particularly interesting because it is a maximum-likelihood decoding
algorithm, which-upon receiving the channel output-searches through the trellis to find the
path that is most likely to have generated the received sequence.
 If hard-decision decoding is used, this algorithm finds the path that is at the minimum
Hamming distance from the received sequence,
 If soft-decision decoding is employed, the Viterbi algorithm finds the path that is at the
minimum Euclidean distance from the received sequence.
 Further discussion of The Viterbi Decoder will be presented on the other slide separately.

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Referensi
 John G. Proakis, Masoud Salehi, Gerhard Bauch (2012), “Contemporary Communication Systems Using
MATLAB 3rd Edition”, Cengage Learning, Boston, USA (Chapter 10)
 Apurba Das (2010), “Digital Communication Principle and System Modelling”, Springer, Heidelberg, Germany
(Chapter 09)
 Ali Grami (2016), “Introduction to Digital Communications”, Elsevier Inc., London, UK (Chapter 10)

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 Terima Kasih
“Siapa pun yang mengobarkan semangatnya untuk
menang, harus menyiapkan keikhlasan yang sama
besarnya untuk merasa damai saat dia dikalahkan…“

[email protected] suharjono.amin

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