CARTOGRAPHIC OUTPUT

Display of Analysis

 A GIS is a means for analyzing spatial data. Cartographic

output is the means for communicating this information.

 Permanent output – printed, plotted, or stored on magnetic

tape, laser disk, etc.

 Ephemeral output - text or images that are viewed on a

CRT, overhead screen, etc.
Cartographic Output

 The principal objective of mapping.

 To create a visual image of spatial elements representing

entities interacting within some areal extent.

 General reference maps display a wide variation of spatial

information.

Topographic map, e.g. contours of elevations, streets,

cultural divisions, waterways, grids, etc.
 Thematic maps display and represent a selected theme
(solution) or subject.

To select, create, and place symbols and graphic

entities over a spatially defined area.

 A map is designed to be read, analyzed, and

interpreted.

 Objects displayed on a map should be necessary.

Map Conventions.

 Conflicts in map design that requires a number of

standardized decisions.

 The location of naturally-occurring physical features (a

stream or lake) takes precedence over typographical objects
(house symbols) that may not be precisely located.
The Design Process.

 Determine the visual finished map.

 Consider; the type of map to create (contour, choropleth,

dasymetric, etc.).
Objects to be included (roads, streams, lakes, cultural
features, etc), and basic layout.

Consider symbols to be used, class limits, colors, & line

weights.
 What is the role of symbols in design?

 Ask how are point, line, and area elements discriminated?

 Size - how much area does an element take up?

 Shape – what is the geometry or shape of the element(s)?

 Hue (color).

 Value (brightness).
 Chroma (the amount of white in a hue compared to a gray
tone of the same brightness (value) level.

 Pattern is achieved by manipulating spatial entities

throughout an areal extent.

Arrangement is a random or systematic grouping of

graphic elements.

 Texture is a spacing of graphic elements affecting

lightness or darkness.

 Orientation is a directional positioning of graphic

elements.
 Basic Design principles.

 Legibility.

 Lines must be easily separable.

 Patterns, shapes, colors, and shadings should be distinct.

 Shapes must be clear and easily identifiable.

Sizes of objects must be appropriate for the size of the

map, and distance at which the map will be viewed.
 Visual contrast.

 Variances in brightness, colors, and shape of graphic

elements with regard to background.

 Establish a difference between the symbols themselves.

Establish a difference between the symbols and the

background over which they are drawn.
 Figure-background.

 The ratio of figures to background.

 Balance background area with spatial entities of the map.

 Include shading, value differences, or color to establish

land\water contrast.

 Labels aid in easily identifying significant features.

 Use familiar shapes (state or county boundaries) to isolate

a study area.

 Establish good contour in which the map elements

represent a logical impression of what is on the map.
 Establish a hierarchical structure.

 Organize the graphic elements so that the important features

stand out.

 Stereogrammic method rendering graphic elements to appear

physically higher on the map.

 Changes in line width, color, shading, or size.

Depth perception is achieved by placing objects on top of

each other.
 Extensional method (hierarchy based upon ordinal data).

 To force the important elements to stand out.

 Varying line symbols for roads, streams, etc.

 Subdivisional method (hierarchy based upon nominal data).

 Creating smaller classes.

Using varying line widths or color and stippling to

discriminate class features.
Map Design Controls

 What is the purpose for which a map is created?

 Substantive objective, the nature of the data and information

displayed.

 Simplicity.

 Focus.

 Affective objective, or how the data are presented?

 Form of presentation.

 How to convey a message by focusing on a specific

thematic content.
 Reality, how well the limits of each mapped entity represent
itself in the map design?
 Available data.

Select specific data germane to the analysis (thinning

excessive data).

Variances in degree of detail, temporal variances, etc.

Operate on the “weakest link” theory.

 Scale variances.

 Smaller scale maps yield less detail per unit area.

If using varied scaled maps in a GIS, again operate on the

“weakest link” theory.
 Audience.

 Consider the level of sophistication of the map compared to

the background of the intended audience.

 Age and ability to visually see the mapped features.

 Conditions of use - Military/field conditions, on a wall, or in a

published report.

 Technical limits.

 Hardware limits.

 Resolution, minimum mapping unit, color variance, etc.

 Nontraditional Cartographic Output

 Fishnet maps, block diagrams, and wire-frame diagrams.

Good for visual understanding, but limited in analytical

application.

 May control the angle of view, viewing azimuth, and

viewing distance.

 Animation, coupling multiple scenes over a temporal range,

and spatially registered.

 Atmospheric conditions taken from GOES satellites.

 Fly through over terrain.

 Shaded relief maps.

 Shaded to mimic shadows.

Good for showing relief changes and topographic

variances.

 Digital orthophotographs.

 Photogrammetrically corrected for relief displacement and

lateral shift of locations due to earth curvature, longitudinal
convergence, etc.
 Cartograms.

Graphic output with the appearance of maps, but distances,

directions, and other spatial arrangements have been modified
to illuminate specific applications.

Route-line types, e.g. mass transit graphics or road atlases

generalizing networks using straight lines to indicate
distance and travel time between locations.

 Central-point linear types, used to modify output from a

functional (weighted) distance model.

 Distance model by difficulty.

 Frictional surface.
Area type, in which sizes of each mapped study area are
varied.

 Contiguous, all areas are touching, although e.g. total

discharge of identified springs would result in some
locational entities (springs) being larger than others.

Noncontiguous (exploded), areas are not touching, e.g.

conterminous U.S., and Alaska or Hawaii.
Noncartographic Output

 Maps may not provide –

 A well-understood output for its audience.

 A map is not the appropriate (desired) output medium.

Interactive Output.

 Using a GIS to determine locations of fires, and routing

scenarios for emergency (medical) routes to hospitals.

 May have both mapped and tabular output, e.g. a routing map
from point a to b, and table assigning distances and times
between ancillary locations (towns).
Tables, Charts, & Other Graphic Representations.

 Use tables to list data (attributes and records).

 May be textual material of the map legend.

 Use graphs to show a spatial distribution of numerical &

statistical data values.

 Use charts to show spatial distributions of thematic data.

 Consider a design around purpose, readability, and audience.

 Chose a font that is plain and clearly recognizable.

 Contrast tables if used within the context of a map.

 Add a boarder around tables contained within a map.

 Avoid acronyms and abbreviations.

 Be specific about data.

 Triangular graphs – soil textural relationships (clay, silt, and
sand).

 Climographs - soil moisture, precipitation, and temperature.

 Rose diagrams - showing direction and distance relationships.

 Cartesian line graphs - based upon x,y axes.

 A line connecting points of continuous observations.

May be single series of values (temperature\pressure), or

multiple threads (temperature\pressure at different times).

 Histograms are used to show the distribution and frequency

of data.

 Bar graphs are a modification.

 Bars may also be stacked to show an additive relationship.

Sand, silt, and clay percentages stacked in different colors

or shades (y-axis is percent), compared to different soil
series (x-axis).
Design Considerations.

 Do not use stippled patterns that are radically different

(produces eye strain and unappealing results).

 Use clear, simple symbols.

 Avoid fancy, overly stylish graphic options.

 Keep grid lines to a minimum and draw them lightly.

Technology and GIS Output.

Ephemeral output

 CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) - electron beams directed against

a phosphor-coated screen.
 Glowing results, but must be refreshed a minimum of 72
times per second (refresh rate).

 Noninterlaced CRT’s, every line is refreshed.

 Interlaced CRT’s, every other line is refreshed.

 Changes in beam intensity change gray levels or color.

 Spatial resolution is dependent on dots per inch.

 A 20” diagonal screen with a capability of displaying

1024x768 dots would require an ability to store 786,432
pixels in graphic memory per 1\72th second just to avoid
screen flicker.
Other Display Devices

 LCD (Liquid Crystal Display.

 LED (Light-Emitting Diode).

Permanent Output

 Ink-jet printers and plotters.

 Electrostatic printers and plotters.