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Unit 2 Part 1 - No Record

The document discusses structural behavior in buildings including forces, moments, equilibrium, and load bearing capacity of masonry structures. It covers topics like compression forces, wind loads, stability of tall masonry structures, and the effect of eccentric loading on masonry walls.

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Raed Jahshan
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34 views34 pages

Unit 2 Part 1 - No Record

The document discusses structural behavior in buildings including forces, moments, equilibrium, and load bearing capacity of masonry structures. It covers topics like compression forces, wind loads, stability of tall masonry structures, and the effect of eccentric loading on masonry walls.

Uploaded by

Raed Jahshan
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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ADVANCED

CONSTRUCTION
TECHNOLOGY
Unit 2 – Introduction to Structures and
Structural Behaviour
UNIT OVERVIEW
This Unit discusses the behaviour of structures within buildings.
▪ Forces and loads in masonry (unit 2 part 1)
▪ Enclosing space in masonry (unit 2 part 2)
▪ Beam design (unit 2 part 3)
▪ Trusses and Frame Structures (unit 2 part 4)
FORCES, MOMENTS AND EQUILIBRIUM
Forces can have size but also direction

When they balance they are said to be in equilibrium


EFFECT OF DIRECTION
Component

Vertical Horizontal
Greatest Zero

Zero Greatest

θ Psinθ Pcosθ
P
IN-LECTURE QUESTION 1
What are the vertical and horizontal components of a 1 kN
force acting in the direction shown, where θ = 30°?

θ
P

Answer:
Vertical 0.5 kN, horizontal 0.866 kN
COMBINED ACTION OF FORCES
When more than one force acts on a point, the resultant
force can be calculated provided we know size and
direction of every force.

In-line:
4 kN opposed by 3 kN gives 1 kN

At an angle:
4 kN and 3 kN gives (e.g.) 6 kN resultant

“Parallelogram of forces” - calculate the resultant by drawing


the forces to scale on squared paper or by trigonometry.
IN-LECTURE QUESTION 3
What is the resultant of the two forces below acting on the
same point?
Hint: use Pythagoras!
5 kN vertically 5 kN horizontally

Resultant = 7.07 kN
Acting at 45°
EQUILIBRIUM - FORCES
If a force is applied to an object it will move.

Building structures must be static, so equilibrium means:

“Every force is balanced by an equal opposing force”

This means every vertical and every horizontal component of


force.
MOMENTS
A force applied to a lever produces a (turning) moment.
Example of a seesaw:

distance

fulcrum
Force (N) = mass (kg) x g
g = 9.81 m/s2

Moment (Nm) = force (N) x distance (m) from the fulcrum


EQUILIBRIUM - MOMENTS
If a moment is applied to a lever it will rotate.

Building structures must be static, so equilibrium means:

“Every moment is balanced by an equal opposing moment”

This means at every point in the structure.

We will return to moments when we discuss bending moments in Beam


Design.
COMPRESSIVE LOADS - MASONRY

Masonry consists of small units set in mortar.


Laid by hand.
The units can be
▪ Bricks – moulded and fired clay or cast concrete
▪ Stone – quarried stone, dressed to shape
▪ Artificial stone – coloured concrete, moulded to look like
dressed stone
▪ Blocks – concrete, both normal density and lightweight (for
thermal insulation).
Key question: How strong can masonry be?
MASONRY – NOT ENGINEERED
MASONRY - ENGINEERED

Engineered loadbearing
brickwork and blockwork
COMPRESSIVE LOADS AND STRUCTURES
How high can we build in masonry?

Think of a mountain – say 10000 m high

Do the rocks at the bottom crush under the load?


HIGH MASONRY

Unsupported masonry walls can stand. Penicuik House was


gutted by fire in 1902 and only the shell remains.
BUT TALL MASONRY…
… is unstable.
It can topple over or buckle because of
▪ uneven settlement of the foundations
▪ wind forces
▪ loads from roof or internal floors

(Refer to Reid figs 1.8-1.11 and accompanying text.)

What happens when the wind blows?


TALL MASONRY IS UNSTABLE
A solid brick A hollow box

The light box topples when the resultant of the combined


forces (self-weight acting downwards and wind forces acting
sideways) gets outside one face.
FORCES ON TALL MASONRY…
Consider a wall 0.2m thick, with wind exerting a pressure of 1
kN/m2 on one face.
Step 1. At the top.

1m Resultant of forces
(to scale)

weight
1m Wind force 1 kN
Weight wind
2000×0.2×9.81 N
= 3.9 kN
FORCES ON TALL MASONRY…
Step 2. 1 metre lower.
Resultant of forces
Resultant force (to scale)
from layer above

1m
weight

from
1m layer
Wind force 1 kN above
Weight
2000×0.2×9.81 N wind
= 3.9 kN
FORCES ON TALL MASONRY…
Step 3. 2 metres from top.
Resultant of forces
Resultant force (to scale)
from above layers

1m

1m Wind force 1 kN
Weight
2000×0.2×9.81 N
= 3.9 kN
FORCES ON TALL MASONRY…
And so on…
In every successive layer the resultant force moves further from
the centre line, until eventually it reaches the down-wind face
and the wall topples over.

(we ought to do this analysis brick by brick but the conclusion is


the same)
EFFECT OF DIRECTION

Winds of 280 kph – 3.7 kN per square metre


WIND LOADS
Wind blowing against a building exerts a pressure.
The pressure is proportional to the square of the speed.
The wind speed depends on
▪ Geographical location
▪ Degree of exposure (hills, woodlands, city centre, open country etc)
▪ Height above the ground
Design codes of practice include charts and tables to guide the
designer.
In the UK the range is 0.25 kN/m2 (low building in Central London) to
2.0 kN/m2 (tall building in Edinburgh).
“TALL” MASONRY IS UNSTABLE

It can topple
It can buckle by failing in tension on one
face (it is weak in tension)
All because the load line becomes
eccentric instead of centred on the axis.
“SHORT” COLUMNS OR WALLS…
…fail by crushing.
“Short” is defined by slenderness ratio (SR)
SR = effective height ÷ effective thickness

Short means SR < 8-10 in most situations.

Effective thickness
▪ of a column is its least lateral dimension
▪ of a wall may be the actual wall thickness or some other
geometric value related to it.
WALL GEOMETRIES

Walls are made more stable by increasing the effective thickness.


The wall plan arrangement of a tower gives mutual support,
similarly piers, buttresses and corrugations.
WALL GEOMETRIES 2
Here are some different possible wall geometries to increase the
effective thickness.

solid cavity with piers or diaphragm zig-zag


wall ties buttresses

(all in plan view)


EFFECTIVE HEIGHT…
…depends on the rigidity of fixing at top and bottom
(schematic section view):
Free to rotate Rigidly built in

Effective
height
EFFECTIVE HEIGHT…
…depends on the rigidity of fixing at top and bottom
(schematic section view):
Free to rotate Rigidly built in
IN LECTURE QUESTION 4
Calculate the slenderness ratio of a solid column 1.35m across
and 15m high in a Gothic cathedral. Would it be ‘short’ or
‘tall’? Check both ‘free to rotate’ and ‘rigid’ cases.

Free to rotate SR = 15÷1.35 = 11.1 tall

Rigidly built in SR = (15/2)÷1.35 = 5.55 short


AN EXAMPLE OF “RIGIDLY BUILT-IN”
Steel reinforcing bars
embedded in the masonry
to stiffen the junction
ECCENTRIC LOADING…
…promotes buckling, reduces load carrying capacity

An eccentric load can put the opposite face of wall


into tension.
We aim to keep all loads within the middle third of the
wall.
ECCENTRIC LOADING IN WALLS
STRENGTH REDUCTION IN WALLS

Multiply the
masonry strength by
β to give load
carrying capacity

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