ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Lab manual
By: Dessalew G.
AI Lab Manual By Dessalew 04/15/2024
Lab class one
1. Introduction
2. Understanding prolog programming
3. Installing developing tools
4. Starting basic prolog programing
5. Executing the first code
6. Exercise for lab one

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Introduction
 Artificial intelligence has the prospects of replicating human intelligence in the future

 AI is a potential business developer and hence, many might want to understand AI

 For efficiently building AI systems one should know at least one programming

language

 In our lab session we are going to learn prolog programming, which is one of the

programming languages for AI.

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Cont…
 Advantages :

 Easy to build database.

 Doesn’t need a lot of programming effort.

 Pattern matching is easy.

 Search is recursion based.

 It has built in list handling.

 Makes it easier to play with any algorithm involving lists

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Understanding prolog
 Prolog is a logic - programming language

 It has important role in artificial intelligence

 Unlike many other programming languages, Prolog is intended primarily as a

declarative programming language

 In prolog, logic is expressed as relations (Facts and Rules)

 Core heart of prolog lies at the logic being applied

 Formulation or Computation is carried out by running a query over these relations

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Cont…
 Facts

 In Prolog we can make some statements by using facts.

 Facts either consist of a particular item or a relation between items.

 For example we can represent the fact that it is sunny by writing the program :

sunny.
 More complicated facts consist of a relation and the items that they refers to.

 These items are called arguments

 Facts can have arbitrary number of arguments from zero upwards

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Cont…
 Rules

 Consider the following sentence : 'All men are mortal' We can express this thing in Prolog

by :

mortal(X) :- human(X).
 The clause can be read as 'X is mortal if X is human'.

 To continue with this example, let us define the fact that Socrates is a human. Our program will be :

mortal(X) :- human(X).

human(socrates).

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Installing developing tools
 To code with prolog you need to install two basic software components

1. Text editor (sublime, notepad++, Vs code)

2. Compiler (SWI-PROLOG)

 Both of these software are open source, they are available freely.

 Now, start downloading both of these software.

 Once you download, install them one by one.

 When you open notepad++ and SWI-PROLOG the following interfaces are displayed

respectively.
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Cont…

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Cont…

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Start basic prolog
programing
 Syntax and basic tasks

 Prolog program has two parts:

1. The program:
 In prolog, We declare some facts and rules

 These facts constitute the Knowledge Base of the system

2. We can query against the Knowledge Base

 We get output as affirmative if our query is already in the knowledge Base or

it is implied by Knowledge Base, otherwise we get output as negative

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Cont…
 Knowledge Base can be considered as similar to database, against which we can

query

 Prolog facts are expressed in definite pattern

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Cont…
 Entities are written within the parenthesis separated by comma (, )

 Their relation is expressed at the start and outside the parenthesis

 Variables are declared with Capital letters (start with capital letter)

 Every fact/rule ends with a dot (.)

Format : relation(entity1, entity2, ....N'th_entity)

Example :
friends(daniel, joseph).
teacher(yared).
odd_number(5).
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Cont…
 Some basic operands

Operands Denoted by:

And ,

If :-

Or ;

Not not

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 Cont…
Facts
?- married(petros, marta). :false
likes(james, marta).
?- married(james, marta). :true
likes (marta, james). ?- likes(petros, marta). :true
?- likes(james, marta). :true
likes(petros, marta).
?- likes (marta, petros). :false
Rule
married(X,Y):-
likes(X,Y),
likes(Y,X).

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Executing the first code
 Open your text editor (notepad++ or sublime or any other)
 Write the following facts and rules

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Cont…
 Save the file as lab1.pl on the desktop (prolog files must be saved with .pl extension)
 Open SWI-PROLOG
 Write the path of the file you saved on the displayed interface as shown below


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Cont…
 Query
 Write the following queries one by one (press Enter after each query)
 ?- married(petros, marta). :false
 ?- married(james, marta). :true
 ?- likes(petros, marta). :true
 ?- likes(james, marta). :true
 ?- likes(marta, petros). :false

 If the answer for the query exists on the facts and the rules the out put will be true,
otherwise the answer is false.
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Cont…

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Exercise for lab one
1. Write the facts and rules for grading system for specific course (students have the
mark, and write the rule for grading)
2. Write some queries for the above program.

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The end of Lab one

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Lab class two
1. Working with variables
2. Lists

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1. Working with variables
eats(sam, dal). compatible(Person1,Person2):-
eats(josie, samosas). eats(Person1,Food1), rule
eats(sam, curry). eats(Person2,Food1).
eats(josie, curry). facts
eats(rajiv, burgers).
eats(rajiv, dal).

Queries with
eats(sam,What). one variable
eats(Who,curry).
compatible(sam, Who). queries
Compatible(Who,rajiv)
Queries wit
h more
than one va
eats(Who,What). riable
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Cont…
vertical(line(point(X,Y), point(X,Y2))).
horizontal(line(point(X,Y), point(X2,Y))).

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2. Lists
 The list is a simple data structure widely used in non-numeric programming.
 A list is a sequence of any number of items, such as ann, tennis, tom, skiing.
 Such a list can be written in Prolog as:

[ ann, tennis, tom, skiing]

 All structured objects in Prolog are trees
 The list is either empty or non-empty
 In the first case the list is simply written as a prolog atom, [].
 In the second case the list can be viewed as consisting of two things.
1. the first item, called the head of the list
2. the remaining part of the list, called the tail

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cont.…
 For our example list

[ ann, tennis, tom, skiing]

the head is ann and the tail is the list
[ tennis, tom, skiing]
 In general, the head can be anything (any Prolog object, for example, a tree or a
variable);
 The tail has to be a list

[a,b,c] = [a | [b,c] ] = [a,b | [c] ] =[a,b,c | [] ]

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Cont…
[a, b, c ]
≡[a | [b, c ] ]
≡[a | [b| [c ] ] ]
≡[a | [b| [c| [] ] ] ]
≡[a , b| [c ] ]

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Some operators on lists
 Let us implement the membership relation as
member( X, L)
where X is an object and L is a list.
The goal member (X, L) is true if X occurs in L.
For example,

member( b, [a,b,c]) is
true
member( b, [a,[b,c]] )
is not true,
but member([b,c], [a,[b,c]] )
true
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Cont…
 The program for the membership relation can be based on the following observation: X is a member of L

if either if
1. X is the head of L, or

2. X is a member of the tail of L.

 This can be written in two clauses, the first is a simple fact and the second is a rule:

member( X, [X I Tail] ).

member( X, [Head I Tail] ) :-

member( X, Tail).
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 List unification
The following table gives examples of list unification:

Variable binding list2 list1

X=book, Y=ball, Z=pen [ book, ball, pen ] [X, Y, Z]

X=7,Y=[ ] [X|Y] [7]

X=1,Y=2,Z=[3,4] [X, Y|Z ] [1, 2, 3, 4]
fail [3|X] [1,2]

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Concatenation of lists
 For concatenating lists we will define the relation append( Ll, L2,L3)

Here Ll andL2 are two lists, and L3 is their concatenation.

For exampre
append( [a,b], [c,d], [a,b,c,d] ) is true,
but
append( [a,b], [c,d], [a,b,a,c,d] ) is false

append([1,2,3],[5,6],L).
Then we gate the concatenated list:
L= [1,2,3,5,6].

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Exercise
1. Write a family tree knowledge base and work with variables
2. Write some clear list and perform list operations(membership, unification,
concatenation)

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End of lab class two

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Lab class 3
1. Arithmetic operations
2. Prolog recursion

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1. Arithmetic operations
 Some of the arithmetic operations in prolog are explained by example as follows

X is 3+4 = 7 addition
X is 5-3 =2 subtraction
X is 3*4= 12 multiplication
X is 5/2 =2.5 division
X is 5//2 = 2 integer division
X is 75 mod 12 =3 modulus
X is 2**3 = 8 2 the power of three

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Cont
 Fo to Co conversion

avg_temp(dire, 100).
avg_temp(harar, 68).

avg_temp_cel(Town, C_Temp):-
avg_temp(Town, F_Temp),
C_Temp is (F_Temp - 32) * 5//9.

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2. Recursion
 Recursion is a technique in which one predicate uses itself (maybe with some other
predicates) to find the truth value.
let us look un example:
is_digesting(X,Y):- just_ate(X,Y).
is_digesting(X,Y):- just_ate(X,Z), is_digesting(Z,Y).
 So this predicate is recursive in nature.
 Suppose we say that:

just_ate(deer, grass),
 it means

is_digesting(deer, grass) is true.

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Cont…
 Now if we say:

is_digesting(tiger, grass),
 this will be true if

is_digesting(tiger, grass) :- just_ate(tiger,

deer), is_digesting(deer, grass),
 then the statement

is_digesting(tiger, grass) is also true.

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 Cont…
 There may be some other examples also, so let us see one family example.

 So if we want to express the predecessor logic, that can be expressed using the

following diagrams

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 parent parent

Z
Predecessor

parent parent parent

Z
X

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Y1

Y2
Predecessor

parent parent parent

parent
X

Y1

Z
Y2

Y2

Predecessor

Predecessor

parent
Y
X

Z
…

Predecessor
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Cont…
 So we can understand the predecessor relationship is recursive.

 We can express this relationship using the following syntax

predecessor(X, Z) :- parent(X, Z).

predecessor(X, Z) :- parent(X, Y),predecessor(Y, Z).

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Recursive function
 Consider the following pattern

%f(0) =0
%f(1)=2
%f(2)=3

The mathematical formula for this pattern is:

%f(n) = 2 * f(n-2) + f(n-1)
The prolog implementation of this recursive function is as follows

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 function(0,0).
function(1,2).
function(2,3).

function(X,Y) :- X1 is X-1,
X2 is X-2,
function(X1,Y1),
function(X2,Y2),

AI Lab Manual By Dessalew

Y is (Y2 * 2) + Y1. 04/15/2024 43
Factorial
factorial(0,1).
factorial(N,F) :-
N>0,
N1 is N-1,
factorial(N1,F1),
F is N * F1.

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Lab exercise for lab 3
1. Write a prolog program to add all the numbers in the range between two
numbers.
 example:
if the numbers are (1, 5),
then your program is going to add (1+2+3+4+5)

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End of lab class three

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Lab class 4
1. Strings in prolog
2. Type checking
3. The structure of terms

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1. Strings in prolog
 Strings are represented in Prolog by a list of character codes

 Prolog offers double quotes for an easy notation for strings

 E.g.

?- S = “Vicky“. Query

S = [86,105,99,107,121] yes response

 There are several standard predicates for working with strings

 A particular useful one is atom_codes

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Cont…
 E.g.

?- atom_codes(vicky,S).  query
S = [118,105,99,107,121] yes  response

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1.1 Input output
 How can we receive input from a user and write an out put to the screen?

say_hi :-
write(‘ what is your name’),
read(X), String wise

write(‘Hi’),
write(X) .

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Cont…
fav_char :-
write(‘what is your favorite character’),
get(X),
format(‘the ascii value ~w is ’, [X]), String wise

put(X), nl.

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2. Type checking
 atom ---- Is the argument an atom?
 integer ---- is the argument an integer?
 float ---- is the argument a floating point number?
 number --- is the argument an integer or float?
 var --------- is the argument an un-instantiated variable?
 nonvar ---- is the argument instantiated variable or another term that is not an un-
instantiated variable

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Cont… ?- atomic(mia). query
yes response
?- atom(a). query
?- atomic(5). query
yes response
yes response
?- atom(7). query
?- atomic(loves(vincent,mia)). query
no response
No response
?- atom(X). query
no response
?- X=a, atom(X). query
X = a. yes response
?- atom(X), X=a. query
no  response

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Cont…
?- var(mia). query ?- nonvar(X). query
no response
no response
?- nonvar(mia). query
?- var(X). query yes response
?- nonvar(23). query
yes response
Yes response
?- X=5, var(X). query

no response

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3. The structure of terms
 Given a complex term of unknown structure, what kind of information might we want

to extract from it?

 Obviously:

 The functor

 The arity

 The argument

 Prolog provides built-in predicates to produce this information

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Cont…
 The functor predicate gives the functor and arity of a complex predicate

e.g.
?- functor(friends(lou,andy),F,A). query
F = friends
responses
A=2
?- functor(friends(lou,andy,eld),F,A). query
F = friends
responses
A=3

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Cont…
 What happens when we use functor with constants?

?- functor(mia,F,A). query
F = mia
response
A=0
?- functor(14,F,A). query
F = 14
response
A=0

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Cont…
 You can also use functor to construct terms:

e.g.
?- functor(Term,friends,2). query
Term = friends(_,_) response

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Cont…
 Prolog also provides us with the predicate arg

 This predicate tells us about the arguments of complex terms

 It takes three arguments:

1. A number N

2. A complex term T

3. The Nth argument of T

?- arg(2,likes(lou,andy),A). query

A = andy yes response

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