TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

1
DEFINITIONS OF TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

Temperature is a fundamental quantity, much the same way as mass, length and
time. It represents the degree of hotness or coldness of a body or an environment,
measured on a definite scale. It is considered driving force or potential that caused
the flow of energy as heat. Thus, we can define temperature as a condition of a
body by virtue of which heat is transferred to or from other bodies.
In the kinetic theory of gases and in statistical thermodynamics, it is shown that
temperature is related to the average kinetic energy of molecules or atoms of
which the material is made of.
The law that is used in temperature measurement is known as the Zeroth law of
thermodynamics. This states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a
third body, then they are all in thermal equilibrium with each other.
It may be noted that there is a marked difference between the quantities
temperature and heat. Temperature may be defined as ‘degree’ of heat whereas
heat is taken to mean as ‘quantity’ of heat. For example, a bucket of warm water
would melt more ice than a small spoon of boiling water.

2
TEMPERATURE SCALES

Two temperature scales in common use are the Fahrenheit and Celsius
scales. The Celsius scale has 100 units between ice point and boiling point
of water, while the Fahrenheit scale has 180 units.
The Celsius scale is currently more in use because of the adoption of metric
units.
The absolute temperature scale based on the thermodynamic ideal Carnot
cycle has been correlated with the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales as
follows:
K (Absolute temperature, Kelvin scale) = °C + 273.15 and
R (Absolute temperature, Rankine scale) = °F + 459.69
The zero points on both the scales represent the same physical state and
the ratio of two values is the same, regardless of the absolute scale used,
i.e. [T2 / T1 ] Rankine = [T2 / T1 ] Kelvin
The relationships between Fahrenheit and Celsius and Rankine and
Kelvin scales are:
°F = 32 + ( 9 / 5)°C and R = ( 9/5) K
3
INTERNATIONAL TEMPERATURE SCALE- 1990
(ITS – 90)
International Temperature Scale-1990 (ITS–90) has been devised by the
International Committee of Weights and Measures for enabling accurate
calibration of temperatures of Kelvin scale coupled with good
repeatability. This scale supersedes the earlier International Practical
Temperature Scale of 1968 (IPTS-68).
The present ITS-90 has defined a number of fixed points and some
selected secondary reference points based on the equilibrium state of
various chemical elements and one compound, which is water. (See Table
12.1)
The special feature of ITS-90 is that it enables calibration of temperature
from 0.65 K, which is very close to absolute zero. Further, it extends to
highest temperature, which can be practically measured using Planck
radiation law, using monochromatic radiations. ITS-90 comprises a
number of ranges and for each range, the comparison is made with direct
measurements of thermodynamic temperatures, which have been specified
in ITS-90.

4
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
(NON - ELECTRICAL METHODS)
Contd.
The non-electrical methods of temperature measurement can be based
on any one of the following principles:
(i) Change in the physical state,
(ii). Change in the chemical properties, and
(iii). Change in the physical properties.
(a) Expansion thermometer Contd.
(i) Bimetallic thermometer Contd.
This thermometer consists of a ‘bimetal’ strip usually in the form of a
cantilever beam, comprising of strips of two metals, having different
coefficients of thermal expansion, welded or riveted together so that
relative motion between them is prevented.
Invar is commonly employed as the low expansion metal. This is an iron-
nickel alloy containing 36% nickel. Its coefficient of thermal expansion is
around 1/20th of the ordinary metals.
Brass is used as high expansion material for the measurement of low
temperatures, whereas nickel alloys are used when higher temperatures
have to be measured.
Contd.5
 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
(NON - ELECTRICAL METHODS)
Contd.
(a) Expansion thermometer Contd.
(i) Bimetallic thermometer
‘Bimetal’ strip of this thermometer is usually in
the form of a cantilever beam as shown in Fig. (i). Fig. (i)
An increase in temperature causes the deflection
of the free end of the strip as shown in Fig. (ii),
assuming that metal A has the higher coefficient of
expansion.
The deflection with the temperature is nearly linear,
depending mainly on the coefficient of linear
thermal expansion. Fig. (ii)
A plain bimetallic strip is somewhat insensitive,
but the sensitivity is improved by using a longer
strip in a helical form as shown in Fig. (iii) One
end of the helix is anchored to the casing and the
other end which is free is conveniently connected
to the pointer which sweeps over a circular dial
graduated in degrees of temperature.
Fig. (iii) 6
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
(NON - ELECTRICAL METHODS)
Contd.
(a) Expansion thermometer
(ii) Liquid in glass thermometer
The liquid-in-glass thermometer is one of the most common temperature
measuring devices. Both liquid and glass expand on heating and their
differential expansion is used to indicate the temperature.
The lower temperature limit is –37.8°C for mercury, down to –130°C for
pentane. The higher temperature range is 340°C (boiling point of mercury
is 357 °C) but this range may be extended to 560°C by filling the space
above mercury with CO2 or N2 at high pressure, thereby increasing its
boiling point and range.
These thermometers have advantages like low cost, simplicity in use, portability
and convenient visual indication without the use of any external power.
Their limitatations include its limited use in certain laboratory applications. It is
not preferred in industrial applications because of its fragility and lack of
adaptability to remote indication. It also introduces time lag in the measurement
of dynamic signals because of relatively high heat capacity of the bulb.
7
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
(NON - ELECTRICAL METHODS)
Contd.
(b) Pressure thermometer Contd.
Pressure thermometer is based on the principle of fluid expansion due to an
increase in the pressure in a given volume of the temperature measuring
system. It has a relatively large metal bulb (often stainless steel) instead of
glass. This results in a robust, easy-to-read thermometer that may be read
remotely by connecting the bulb to a Bourdon gauge or any other pressure
measuring device by means of a capillary
The entire assembly of the bulb, capillary and gauge is calibrated directly on
the basis of pressure change corresponding to the temperature change. The
bulb of the thermometer may be filled with either a liquid (usually mercury)
or gas or a liquid-vapour mixture and depending upon the type of fluid, the
thermometer is termed as mercury-in-steel thermometer or constant volume
gas thermometer or vapour pressure thermometer respectively.
Fluid expansion thermometers are low in cost, self-operated type, rugged in
construction, with no maintenance expenses, stable in operation and
accurate to ±1°C.
8
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
(NON - ELECTRICAL METHODS)
Contd.
(b) Pressure thermometer Contd.
(i) Mercury in steel bulb thermometer
The mercury-in-steel thermometer shown in the
figure, has a near-linear scale.
A reduction of the error is obtained by making
the sensing-bulb volume considerably greater
than that of the capillary and Bourdon tubes.
This inevitably increases the thermal capacity
and hence the thermal lag. The bulb size is
therefore a matter of compromise.
The volumes of the capillary and Bourdon tube
are made as small as the transmission distance
and the required size of display could allow.
Correction has to be applied due to change in Fig. Mercury in steel bulb
pressure head which is introduced by any change
thermometer
in the relative levels of the bulb and the display, if
the bulb is raised by a height h from the
calibration elevation.
9
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
(NON - ELECTRICAL METHODS)
Contd.
(b) Pressure thermometer Contd.
(ii) Constant volume thermometer
The constant volume thermometer uses an inert gas (usually nitrogen) in
place of mercury and the principle of its working is the increase is
pressure of the gas with increase in temperature at constant volume.
However, the volume of the system, i.e., that of bulb, capillary and the
Bourdon tube, does not remain constant and increases slightly due to the
increase in pressure and in addition the volume of the bulb also increases
due to increase in temperature.
Gas filled systems operate over a range –130 to 540°C with linear ranges
as large as 500°C.
However, its disadvantage over the liquid filled system is that the pressure
developed for a given temperature change is smaller and further ambient
temperature compensation is more difficult.
The accuracy of these instruments is of the order of ±1% at lower ranges,
i.e. up to 300°C and ±2% above this range.
10
 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
(NON - ELECTRICAL METHODS)
(b) Pressure thermometer Contd.
(iii) Vapour pressure thermometer
The vapour pressure thermometer looks very similar to mercury in steel
thermometer, however, it is filled partly with liquid and partly with vapour of the
same liquid so that there is a liquid-vapour interface in the bulb.
The liquid-vapour system does not have any error as long as a free liquid surface
exists in the sensing bulb. This is because such a system follows one of the Dalton’s
laws of partial pressure which states that if both liquid and vapour are present,
there is only one saturation pressure corresponding to a given temperature.
This thermometer employs mostly any one of the hydrocarbon type of fluids like
ethane, ethyl alcohol, ethyl chloride, methyl chloride, chloro-benzene, toluene,
pentane, ether, acetone, etc.
The scale range is usually of the order of 100°C and accuracy is up to ±1% of the
differential range.
Indicated temperature in this thermometer is roughly a logarithmic function of the
temperature (log p = a – b/T) and therefore the scale of the vapour pressure
thermometers is noticeably non-linear, unlike the mercury in steel pressure
thermometer whose scale is nearly linear.
11
 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
(ELECTRICAL METHODS)
Contd.
Electrical methods are in general preferred for the measurement of
temperature as they furnish a signal which can be easily detected,
amplified or used for control purposes.
There are two main electrical methods used for measuring temperature.
They are:
(i) Thermo-resistive type i.e., variable resistance transducers and
(ii) Thermo-electric type i.e., emf generating transducers.
(a) Resistance thermometer Contd.
(i) Metallic resistance thermometer Contd.
Metals such as platinum, copper, tungsten and nickel exhibit small increases
in resistance, which varies linearly, as the temperature rises because they
have a positive temperature coefficient of resistance. Because of this
property, they are also termed as Resistance -Temperature Detectors (RTDs).
Platinum is a very widely used sensor and its operating range is from 4K to
1064°C. However for the measurement of lower temperatures up to 600°C,
RTD sensor is made of nickel. Further, for ranges of temperature below
300°C, the sensing element is fabricated using pure copper wire.
Contd. 12
 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
(ELECTRICAL METHODS)
Contd.
(a) Resistance thermometer Contd.
(i) Metallic resistance thermometer Contd.
Metallic resistance thermometer element is usually in the form of a coil of
fine wire supported in a stress-free manner. A typical construction is
shown in the figure. where the wire of metal is wound on the grooved
hollow insulating ceramic former and covered with protective cement.
The ends of the coils are welded to stiff copper leads that are taken out to
be connected in one of the arms of the Wheatstone bridge circuit.
However, in most applications, a protective metal sheath is used to provide
rigidity and mechanical strength.

Fig. : Metallic resistance thermometer element

13
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
(ELECTRICAL METHODS)
Contd.
(a) Resistance thermometer Contd.
(i) Metallic resistance thermometer
Cable compensation arrangement of RTDs
The variation of resistance of the sensing
element of RTD is normally measured
using some form of electrical bridge
circuit which may employ either the Fig. (i): Siemen’s three Lead
deflection mode of operation or the null arrangement
(manually or automatically balanced)
mode.
Leads of same length appropriate to the
situation are normally required. For
precise results, either the Siemen’s three
wire lead arrangement or Callender’s
four wire lead arrangement may be
employed[(see Figs.(i) and (ii)] Fig. (ii): Callender’s four Lead
arrangement
14
 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
(ELECTRICAL METHODS)
Contd.
(a) Resistance thermometer Contd.
(ii) Semi-conductor resistance sensor (Thermistors) Contd.
Thermistor (shortened form of the words: thermal resistor) is a thermally
sensitive variable resistor made of ceramic-like semiconducting materials.
They are available in a greater variety of shapes and sizes with cold
resistance ranging from a few ohms to mega ohms.
The size can range from extremely small bead, thin disc, thin chip or wafer
to a large sized rod as illustrated in the figure.

Fig.: Range of themistor forms

Contd. 15
 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
(ELECTRICAL METHODS)
Contd.
(a) Resistance thermometer Contd.
(ii) Semi-conductor resistance sensor (Thermistors) Contd.
Thermistors are fabricated from the semiconducting materials which include the
oxides of copper, manganese, nickel, cobalt, lithium and titanium. These oxides are
blended in a suitable proportion and compressed into desired shapes from powders
and heat treated to recrystallise them, resulting in a dense ceramic body with the
required resistance–temperature characteristics.
Thermistors have a highly non-linear resistance–temperature characteristics. The
temperature-resistance characteristics of a thermistor is of exponential type and is
given by:

where R0 is the resistance at the reference temperature T 0 (kelvin)

R is the resistance at the measured temperature T (kelvin)
β is the experimentally determined constant for the given thermistor
material. The values of β usually lie between 3000 and 4400 K, depending on the
formulation or grade.

16
 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
(ELECTRICAL METHODS)
Contd.
(b) Thermo-electric sensor Contd.
(i) Principles of thermo-electric sensors Contd.
Seebeck effect:
The basic principle of temperature measurement using a thermo-electric sensor was
discovered by Seebeck in 1821 and has been illustrated in the figure.
When two conductors of dissimilar metals, say A and B, are joined together to form a loop
(thermocouple) and two unequal temperatures T 1 and T2 are interposed at two junctions J 1
and J2, respectively, then an infinite resistance voltmeter detects the electromotive force E, or
if a low resistance ammeter is connected, a current flow I is measured.
Experimentally, it has been found that the magnitude of E depends upon the materials as
well as the temperature T1 and T2. Now, the overall relation between emf E and the
temperatures T1 and T2 forms the basis for thermo-electric measurements and is called the
Seebeck effect.

Fig. : Basic thermo-electric circuit

17
 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
(ELECTRICAL METHODS)
Contd.
(b) Thermo-electric sensor Contd.
(i) Principles of thermo-electric sensors Contd.
Law of Intermediate temperatures
This states that the emf generated in a thermocouple with junctions at temperatures
T1 and T3 is equal to the sum of the emf’s generated by similar thermocouples, one acting
between temperatures T1 and T2 and the other between T2 and T3 when T2 lies between T1
and T2 , as shown in the figure..
This law helps in giving a suitable correction in case a reference junction temperature
(which is usually an ice bath at 0°C) other than 0°C is employed. For example, if a
thermocouple is calibrated for a reference junction temperature of 0°C and used with
junction temperature of say 20°C, then the correction required for the observation
would be the emf produced by the thermocouple between 0 and 20°C.

Fig. :Law of Intermediate temperatures 18

 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
(ELECTRICAL METHODS)
Contd.
(b) Thermo-electric sensor Contd.
(i) Principles of thermo-electric sensors Contd.
Law of Intermediate metals Contd.
The basic thermocouple loop consists of two dissimilar metals A and B
[Fig. (a)]. If a third wire is introduced, then three junctions are formed as
shown in Fig. (b). The emf generated remains unaltered if the two new
junctions B–C and C–A are at the same temperature.

Fig. :Law of Intermediate metals

19
 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
(ELECTRICAL METHODS)
Contd.
(b) Thermo-electric sensor Contd.
(i) Principles of thermo-electric sensors Contd.
Law of Intermediate metals Contd.
Extension wires are needed when the
measuring instrument is to be placed at a
considerable distance from the reference
junction. Maximum accuracy is obtained when
the leads are of the same material as the
thermocouple element [Fig. (a)].
Fig. (a) : A thermocouple without
However, this approach is not economical
extension leads
while using expensive thermocouple materials.
Further, a small inaccuracy is still possible if
the binding post of the instrument is made of
say copper and the two binding posts are at
different temperatures. Therefore, it is
preferable to employ the system shown in
Fig. (b) to keep the copper-iron and copper-
constantan junctions in the thermos flask at Fig. (b) : A thermocouple with
0°C and provide binding posts of copper. copper extension leads
20
 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
(ELECTRICAL METHODS)
Contd.
(b) Thermo-electric sensor Contd.
(ii) Thermo-electric Materials
Thermocouple can be broadly classified in two categories:
(i)Base-metal thermocouples use the combination of pure metals and alloys of iron,
copper and nickel and are used for temperature up to 1450 K.
(ii) Rare-metal thermocouples use a combination of pure metals and alloys of
platinum for temperatures up to 1600°C and tungsten, rhodium and molybdenum
for temperatures up to 3000°C.
Typical thermocouples with their temperature ranges and other salient operating
characteristics, are given in the following Table.

Table : Operating Characteristics of some typical thermocouples 21

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
(ELECTRICAL METHODS)
Contd.
(c) Solid state temperature sensor
Common I.C. devices like silicon diodes and transistors exhibit a
stable and reproducible response to temperature. When a PN
junction is forward biased by a constant current source, its
governing equation between current and voltage is as follows:

where VBE = base emitter voltage

Ic = collector current
Ies = emitter saturation current
K = Boltzmann constant (1.38 × 10–23 J/K)
q = electron charge (1.6 × 10–19 C)
T = absolute temperature (K).
22
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
(ELECTRICAL METHODS)
(d) Quartz thermometer
A piezo-electric crystal provides a highly accurate and sensitive
method of temperature measurement based on the change in its
resonant frequency which is directly proportional to the temperature
change. Herein, the crystal is cut in the form of shear type LC cut, in
which the change in resonant frequency is highly linear as well as
repeatable. The associated electronic circuitry of this thermometer
consists of frequency counters and digital read-out of the measured
frequency.
The fundamental frequency f0 depends on the thickness of the crystal
and can be adjusted so as to give a sensitivity of the order of 1000 Hz
for a temperature change of 1°C. In other words, the detection of
change in frequency of oscillation of 1 Hz gives a resolution of
0.001°C. Further, temperature in the range of –40 to 230°C can be
measured precisely and accurately by this method.
23
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
(RADIATION METHODS)
Contd.
(a) Fery’s total radiation pyrometerContd.
For temperatures above 650°C, the heat radiations emitted from the body are
of sufficient intensity to be used for measuring the temperature. The
temperature measurement technique using radiation method is termed as
pyrometry, which is basically a non contact type of temperature
measurement method.
The theory underlying the operation of total radiation pyrometers is that the
rate of radiation from a body A (the source) to a body B (the pyrometer), i.e.
EA/B is given by the Stafan-Boltzmann law as follows:
EA/B = C ɛ σ [ T 4A − T 4 B ]
where EA/B is the energy received by the pyrometer in W/m2
C is a geometrical factor depending on the relative shapes of the two bodies
ɛ is the emissivity of the detector disc which varies from 0.05 to 1.0 for the
theoretical black body
σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 56.7 × 10–12 kW/(m2 ,K4)
TA and TB are the steady state absolute temperature of the source and pyrometer
detector disc.
Contd. 24
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
(RADIATION METHODS)
Contd.
(a) Fery’s total radiation pyrometer Contd.
Fery’s total radiation pyrometer, shown in the figure, is usually calibrated in the
range of 700 –2000°C. It consists of blackened tube T open at one end to receive the
radiations from the object whose temperature is to be measured. The other end of
the tube has a sighting aperture in which an adjustable eyepiece is usually fitted.
The thermal radiations impinge on the concave mirror whose position can be
adjusted suitably by a rack-and-pinion arrangement so as to get proper focusing of
the thermal radiations on the detector disc S.
The detector disc is usually of blackened platinum sheet/foil and is connected to a
thermocouple/thermopile junctions or to a resistance thermometer bridge circuit.

Fig.: Schematic diagram of Fery’s total

radiation pyrometer Contd. 25
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
(RADIATION METHODS)
Contd.
(b) Selective radiation pyrometerContd.
The principle of this instrument is based on Planck’s law which states
that the energy level in the radiations from a hot body are distributed in
the different wave lengths. As the temperature increases, the emissive
power shifts to shorter wave lengths. The Planck’s distribution equation
is:

where c1 = 3.740 × 10–12 (W–cm2)

c2 = 1.4385 (cm –°C)
λ = wavelength (cm)
T = absolute temperature in (K)
W = energy level associated with wavelength at
temperature T (W/cm3) Contd. 26
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
(RADIATION METHODS)
Contd.
(b) Selective radiation pyrometer Contd.
In the selective resistance pyrometer, which is also known as disappearing filament
instrument, shown in the figure, an image of the target is superimposed on the
heated filament.
The tungsten lamp, which is very stable, is previously calibrated so that when the
current through the filament is known, the brightness temperature of the filament is
also known.
A red filter is employed that passes only a narrow band of wavelengths around 0.65
μm is placed between the observer eye and the tungsten lamp and the target image.

Fig.: Schematic diagram of disappearing filament

type pyrometer Contd. 27
 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
(RADIATION METHODS)
Contd.
(b) Selective radiation pyrometerContd.
The observer controls the lamp current until the filament and the background light
intensities are same i.e., the filament disappears in the superimposed target image as
shown in the (c) part of the figure.
The temperature calibration is made in terms of the lamp heating current. Because of
the manual null balancing principle, the optical pyrometer is not usable for continuous
recording or automatic control applications. However, it is more accurate and less
subject to large errors than the total radiation pyrometer.
The accuracy of such pyrometers is usually ± 5°C in the range of 850–1200°C. Further,
when used in the extended range of 1100 – 1950°C, its accuracy is better than ±10°C.

Fig.: Appearance of filament in the disappearing

filament type pyrometer 28