Direct Current (DC) Circuits 1

Learning Outcomes:
 Calculate power/energy and determine
whether energy is supplied or absorbed
by circuit elements.
 State and apply Ohm’s law.
 Recognize series and parallel circuits
and calculate the total resistance.
 Apply the suitable theorem of circuit
theory (voltage/current divider or
Kirchhoff’s Laws or Mesh/Node
Analysis) to solve electrical circuits.
2
 Chapter 2: Direct Current (DC) Circuits
• In this chapter, we will cover:
– 2.1 DC Source
– 2.2 Ohm’s Law
– 2.3 Power and Energy
– 2.4 Resistor
– 2.5 Capacitor
– 2.6 Inductor
– 2.7 Nodes, Branch and Loop
– 2.8 Kirchhoff's Law
– 2.9 Series Circuits
– 2.10 Parallel Circuits
– 2.11 Series-parallel Circuits
– 2.12 Current and Voltage Divider
– 2.13 Wye-Delta Transformation
– 2.14 Node/Nodal Analysis
– 2.15 Mesh Analysis
3
 2.1 DC Sources
• Direct current (DC): a constant flow of electric
charge with time

• For ideal voltage source and ideal current source,

they supply fixed voltage and fixed current
respectively.
• Ideal sources do not exist. It use to simplify circuit
analysis.

4
 2.1 DC Sources: Voltage source
• There are two types of voltage sources – independent and dependent voltage
source.
• Independent voltage source-Is an active element that provides specific
voltage that is completely independent of other circuit elements connected
to it
• Dependent voltage source - Is an active element in which the source
quantity is controlled by another voltage or current

5
 2.1 DC Sources: Voltage source

• Two types of dependent voltage source are voltage

controlled voltage source (VCVS) and current
controlled voltage source (CCVS).
• The sign of voltage can be negative.

6
7
 2.1 DC Sources: Voltage source
• Voltage source can be connected in series. In this connection
the voltage value is added.
• But cannot connected in parallel. Could easily cause
component failure. It results in an inconsistent equation, e.g.,
a 3V and 2V source connected in parallel, by KVL, gives the
equation: 3 = 2.
• the battery with the highest voltage will discharge into the
other one, until they end up with equal voltages. If the 2 nd
battery (the lower voltage one) is a rechargeable, then it will
be charged by the first one, again until the two have the same
voltage. In this case the end voltage will be intermediate 3+2
= 2.5
between the two starting voltages. 2
• The current flowing between the batteries during this process
will be quite high: it is equal to the different between the 2
voltages divided by the sum of the internal resistances of the 2V
3V
batteries:
• For example:
I=(V1−V2)/(R1+R2)

3−2
=3 𝐴
150 𝑚+150 𝑚
• This current may damage one or both of the batteries 3=2
Any amount of current over 10 milliamps (0.01 amp) is capable of producing painful to
severe shock, currents between 100 and 200 mA (0.1 to 0.2 amp) are death. Currents
above 200 milliamps (0.2 amp), while producing severe burns and unconsciousness, 8
do not usually cause death if the victim is given immediate attention
 2.1 DC Sources: Voltage source

• Voltage source can be connected in series. In this connection the voltage

value is added.

the bulbs which are

connected in parallel
will glow brighter.

BEKG 1123
Principles of Electric and Electronics Chapter 2 : Direct Current (DC) Circuits 9
 2.1 DC Sources: Current source
• There are two types of current sources - independent and dependent
current source.
• Independent current source- Is an active element that provides specific
current that is completely independent of other circuit elements connected
to it
• Dependent current source - the current produced may depend on some
other circuit variable such as current or voltage.

10
 2.1 DC Sources: Current source
• Two types of dependent current source are voltage controlled current
source (VCCS) and current controlled current source (CCCS).
• The sign of current can be negative.

11
 2.1 DC Sources: Current source
• Ideal current sources cannot be connected in series.

• However it is allowed if the sources is connected in parallel.

12
 2.1 Ohm’s Law
• Resistance is a characteristic of material to resists the flow of electric
charge and is represented by the symbol R.
• The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-sectional area A
depends on A and its length, l .
• In mathematical form,


R
A

*where ρ is known as the resistivity of the material in ohm-meter

13
2.2 Ohm’s Law

14
 2.2 Ohm’s Law
• Ohm's Law defines the relationships between (P) power, (V) voltage, (I)
current, and (R) resistance. One Ohm (Ω) is the resistance value through
which one volt will maintain a current of one ampere.
• Ohm’s law states that the voltage across a resistor is directly proportional
to the current I flowing through the resistor.

v  iR

15
v  iR
𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅

16
 2.2 Ohm’s Law
• Good conductors, such as copper and aluminum, have low resistivity,
while insulators, such as mica and paper, have high resistivity.
• Two extreme possible values of R = 0 (zero) and R =  (infinite) are
related with two basic circuit concepts: short circuit and open circuit.

V  IR
V  I ( 0)  0
Short circuit
Let V=5V
• but the current is not zero; could be 5
anything. R 
•
Open circuit 0
In practice (simple circuit), a short
circuit is always a connecting wire
assumed to be a perfect conductor.

17
 Unwanted s/c
• A short circuit is a circuit in which the electricity has found
an alternative path to return to the source without going
through an appropriate load

The wire will

heat instantly
and probably
melt

If the wire inside the drill comes loose and

touches the other wire, a new path exists
where the current can return to the source
without going through a load (drill)
18
Another type of short
circuit occurs when some
conductive object
accidently gets into an
overhead power line.
If the object touches
both the lines at the
same time, the
electricity has a short
circuit path available to
return to the source
before it goes to the
customer's electric
service. If the object is
connected to the ground,
the earth can act as a
short circuit path

19
 2.2 Ohm’s Law
• Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric current; it is
the reciprocal of resistance R and is measured in mhos or siemens.

1 i
G 
R v
• The power dissipated by a resistor:

2
v
p  vi  i R  2
v G
2

20
 2.2 Ohm’s Law
EXAMPLE

Calculate:
1. Current, I
2. Conductance, G
3. Power, p

21
 2.2 Ohm’s Law
Solution

1.

2.

3.

22
 2.2 Ohm’s Law
EXAMPLE

For the given circuit, calculate the voltage v, the conductance G and the power
p.

Answer: 20V, 100µS, 40mW

23
 2.3 Power and Energy
• Power is the time rate of expanding or absorbing energy, measured in
watts (W).
• Mathematical expression:

dw dw dq
p    vi
dt dq dt

24
 2.3 Power and Energy

• If the current enters through the positive terminal of an element,

p = +vi ….absorbing power
• Passive element such as resistor, inductor and capacitor will absorb power
• If the current enters through the negative terminal of an element
p = −vi ….supplying power
• Active element such as current/voltage source will supply power

Absorbing power Supplying Power

How do we know, when the power The answer: current direction and 25
has + or – sign? voltage polarity
 1.5 Power and Energy
Example :

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Two cases of an element with an Two cases of an element with a

absorbing power of 12 W: supplying power of 12 W:

(a) p = 4 × 3 = 12 W, (c) p = 4 × (−3) = −12 W,

(b) p = 4 × 3 = 12 W. (d) p = 4 × (−3) = −12 W.
Because a + current enters the – terminals
Because a + current enters the + terminals 26
 2.3 Power and Energy

• The law of conservation of energy ; the algebraic sum of

power in a circuit at any instant of time, must be zero:

p0
2
2 𝑉
𝑃= 𝐼 𝑅=𝐼𝑉 =
𝑅
* power supplied to the circuit must balance the total power absorbed

• The energy absorbed or supplied by an element from time t0 to

time t is:
t t
w  t0
pdt   vidt
t0

* the capacity to do work, measured in joules (J)

27
 𝑉2
Exercise
2
𝑃= 𝐼 𝑅=𝐼𝑉 =
𝑅
𝑉2 52
@ = =100𝑚𝑊
𝑅 100+150
State the law of conservation of energy.
For Figure Q2, prove the law of conservation of energy using the calculation.

100Ω

5V

150Ω

Figure Q2

28
 2.4 Resistor

• The resistor is the simplest circuit element.

• In a resistor, the voltage v is proportional to the current i, with
the constant of proportionality R known as the resistance.
• Resistor is an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of
electric current, it is measured in ohms (Ω).

v i
 v  iR
v
or R 
i

29
2.4 Resistor: Color code and ratings

30
*Better Be Right Or Your Great Big Venture Goes Worse
31
 …continued
Number Colour Petua
0 hitam Haji
1 Perang Pak
2 merah Mat
3 oren Orang
4 Kuning Kaya
5 Hijau Hendak
6 Biru Beli
7 Ungu Ubi
8 Kelabu Kayu
9 Putih Putih
± 5% Emas Enggan
±10% Perak Pulang tolerance
±20% Tak berwarna Tanpa wang
32
2.4 Resistor: Color code and ratings

• The above resistance is 1,000,000 Ω or 1MΩ.

• The 10% means the actual resistance is between 900kΩ and 1.1M Ω (100k
Ω tolerance).

33
 2.4 Resistor: Color code and ratings

• The above resistance is 150,000 Ω or 150kΩ.

• The 5% means the actual resistance is between 142.5kΩ and 157.5kΩ.

34
 2.4 Resistor: Color code and ratings

• The above resistance is 3,300 Ω or 3.3kΩ.

• The 5% means the actual resistance is between 3,135Ω and 3,465Ω.

35
 2.5 Capacitor
• Unlike resistor which dissipate energy, capacitor store energy, which can
be retrieved at later time. It is a passive elements.
• Also called storage elements. The energy is stored in its electric field.
• The unit to measure the capacitance of a capacitor, C is farad (F).

Capacitor symbol Capacitor type

36
2.5 Capacitor: Code

37
 2.6 Inductor

• It is a passive element designed to store energy in its

magnetic field.
• Inductor, L consists of a coil of conducting wire.
• Inductance is measured in henrys (H).

Inductor symbol
Inductor type 38
2.6 Inductor: Colour code

39
 2.7 Nodes, Branches and Loops
• A branch represents a single
element such as a voltage source
or a resistor

• A node is the point of connection

between two or more branches

• A loop is any closed path in a

circuit.

40
 2.7 Nodes, Branches and Loops

• An independent loop is a loop that contain at least one

branch which is not part of any other independent loop.
• A network with b branches, n nodes, and l independent
loops will satisfy the fundamental theorem of network
topology:

b  l  n 1

41
 2.7 Nodes, Branches and Loops

EXAMPLE

Original circuit

How many branches, nodes, loops and independent loops are there?

Equivalent circuit 3 nodes, 5 branches, 3 loops

42
 2.7 Nodes, Branches and Loops

Rules
I1 I2
a
I1 = I 2
Two or more elements are in series and carry the same current if they exclusively
share a single node

v1 v2 v3
v1 = v 2 = v 3

Two or more elements are in parallel and have the same voltage if they connected to
the same two nodes
43
 2.8 Kirchhoff's Law

• The foundation of circuit analysis is:

– The defining equations for circuit elements (e.g.
ohm’s law)
• Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)
• Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)

• The defining equations tell how the voltage and

current within a circuit element are related.

• Kirchhoff’s laws tell us how the voltages and currents

in different branches are related.

44
 2.8 Kirchhoff's Law: KCL

 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents
entering a node (or a closed boundary) is zero.
N

i
n 1
n 0 N = number of branches connected to a node

𝑖1 +𝑖3 +𝑖 4 −𝑖2 −𝑖5 =0

𝑖1 +𝑖3 +𝑖 4 =𝑖2 +𝑖5

As a rule of thumb for calculation :

current entering a node is regarded as
positive (+ve), current leaving a node
is regarded as negative (-ve). 45
 2.8 Kirchhoff's Law: KCL
EXAMPLE 1

Applying KCL:

4 + i = 5 + 11
thus, i = 12A

46
2.8 Kirchhoff's Law: KCL

Original circuit Equivalent circuit

• When current sources are connected in parallel, KCL can be applied to

obtain the total current.
• The combined current is the algebraic sum of the current supplied by the
individual sources.
• A circuit cannot contain two different currents, I1 and I2, in series,
unless I1 = I2; otherwise KCL will be violated.

47
2.8 Kirchhoff's Law: KCL
PRACTISE PROBLEM 2.7 (Pg42)-Sadiku 5th
Find vo and io in the circuit of the following figure:

Solution:
Apply KCL at node a;
𝑖𝑜
6=𝑖𝑜+ +𝑖𝑥
4 We get vo = 8V and io = 4A
48 48
Example
Obtain i1, i2, i3

6=𝑖 2+7

7=𝑖3 + 2 49
Example
Obtain i1, i2

50
2.8 Kirchhoff's Law: KVL
• Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum
of all voltages around a closed path (or loop) is zero.

“Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage supplied”

Mathematically, M

 vm  0
m 1
Thus, the KVL equation :
-v1 + v2 +v3 –v4 +v5 = 0
51
2.8 Kirchhoff's Law: KVL

The KVL equation :

or

Equivalent circuit
Original circuit

• When voltage sources are connected in series, KVL can be applied

to obtain the total voltage
• The combined voltage is the algebraic sum of the voltages of the
individual sources

52
2.8 Kirchhoff's Law: KVL

EXAMPLE
• Applying the KVL equation for the circuit of the
figure below to find the current, I.

-va+v1+vb+v2+v3 = 0

V1 = IR1 v2 = IR2 v3 = IR3

Þ va-vb = I(R1 + R2 + R3)

va  vb
I
R1  R2  R3

53
2.8 Kirchhoff's Law: KVL
PRACTISE PROBLEM 2.5 (Pg41) KVL

Find v1 and v2 in the circuit of the following figure:

Solution:

−10−8+(4 +2) 𝑖=0

Apply KVL 

−10+𝑣1−8−𝑣2=0 @

54
2.8 Kirchhoff's Law: KVL
PRACTISE PROBLEM 2.6 (Pg41) KVL

Find vx and vo in the circuit of the following figure:

Solution:
Apply KVL  -35 +vx + 2vx - vo=0 and vx=10i, vo=-5i
Substituting => -35 + 10i + 2(10i) - (-5i) = 0
We get => 35 = 35i, hence i=1A
Hence vx=10V, vo=-5V

55
 Example Option 1: all equation in terms of
current, to find unknown current
Find currents and voltages in (a)

𝑖1=𝑖2 +𝑖3
Applying KVL to loop 2,
Applying KVL to loop1:
¿ −3 𝑖 2+ 6 𝑖3 =0

Substituting 2 & 3 in 1;
56
𝑖2 =2 𝐴 ,
Example Option 2: all equation in terms of
voltage, to find unknown voltages

Find currents and voltages in (a)

Applying KCL at node a;

Applying KVL to loop 2,

+
-

Applying KVL to loop1:

𝑣1
Substituting 2 & 3 in 1; 𝑖1= =3 𝐴 ,
𝑣 1 +𝑣 2= 30
8 57
2.8 Kirchhoff's Law:
PRACTISE PROBLEM 2.8 (Pg43)-Sadiku

Find the currents and voltages in the circuit shown in the following figure

58
 Option 1: all equation in terms of
KCL at the top node; current, to find unknown current
i1  i2  i3
v1 v2 v3 a
…..2 (1)8  4 .........(1)
KVL at loop 1;
5 v1 v2  0
v1  5  v+8𝑖
−5+2𝑖 =0
2 ........( 2)
1 2
KVL at loop 2;
The steps will be easier /
 v 2  v3  3  0 shorter when NODAL ANALYSIS
is applied – will be learned in
− ( 8v𝑖32) +
3 4v𝑖2........(
3=3 … .(3)
3)
the subsequent subtopic

solving by calculator using equation mode;

i1=1.5 A, i2=0.25A, i3=1.25A
Hence

𝑣 1=2𝑖1 =2 ( 1.5 )=3𝑉 59

 Option 2: all equation in terms of
KCL at the top node; voltage, to find unknown voltages

𝑖1=𝑖2 +𝑖3 a

KVL at loop 1;

−5+𝑣 1 +𝑣 2=0
KVL at loop 2; The steps will be easier /
shorter when NODAL ANALYSIS
− 𝑣 2+𝑣 3 − 3=0 is applied – will be learned in
the subsequent subtopic
solving by calculator using equation mode:

𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣3
− + + =0....(1) Hence v1 = 3V, v2 = 2V, v3 = 5V
2 8 4 i1=1.5 A, i2=0.25A, i3=1.25A 60
−12+𝑣+2=0 @

61
−9+𝑉 6 +𝑉 0 =0

62
 Tutorial 2 no 12
Find I and Vab in the circuit of the following figure: (Ans: (4A; 28V)

63
 Tutorial 2 no 13

Ans: (4.167V)

64
Text book Sadiku

65
Example
Obtain v1, v2, v3

66
Example

6 +3 𝑖=0

10(-2)

67
Example

68
69
70
 Text book Sadiku

To find Vo
*Actually other methods can also be used
71
 Text book Sadiku

To find power

*Actually other methods can also be used

72
 2.9 Series Circuits

• Series: Two or more elements are in series if they are

cascaded or connected sequentially and consequently carry
the same current.
• The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors
connected in a series is the sum of the individual resistances.

N
Req  R1  R2      R N   Rn 𝑖1= 𝑖2=𝑖
n 1
73
 2.10 Parallel Circuits

• Parallel: Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the
same two nodes and consequently have the same voltage across them.
• The equivalent resistance of a circuit with N resistors in parallel is:

1 1 1 1
     𝑣 1= 𝑣 2=𝑣
Req R1 R2 RN
74
 6×3
@ 𝑅𝑎= =2 Ω
6+3
2.10 Series-Parallel Circuits

EXAMPLE 2.9 (Pg.47)-Sadiku

Find Req for the circuit shown in the following figure

𝑅 𝑏=2+ 2= 4 Ω

Answer:
14.4 ohm
6×4
𝑅 𝑐= = 2.4 Ω 75
6 +4
2.11 Series-Parallel Circuits
PRACTISE PROBLEM 2.9 (Pg.48)-Sadiku

By combining the resistors in the following fig, find Req.

Answer:
6 ohm

76
2.11 Series-Parallel Circuits

EXAMPLE 2.10 (Pg.48)-Sadiku

Calculate the equivalent resistance Rab in the following circuit:

Answer:
11.2 ohm

77
2.11 Series-Parallel Circuits

PRACTICE PROBLEM 2.10 (Pg.49)-Sadiku

Calculate the equivalent resistance Rab in the following circuit:

Answer:
11 ohm
78
series/parallel - Tutorial 2 No 19
find the equivalent resistance seen by the source in the following circuit. Find the overall
dissipated power. (Ans: (40Ω; 3.6W))

2 2
𝑉 12
𝑃𝑇= = =3.6 𝑊 79
𝑅𝑇 40
Tutorial 2 No 21

Find Req and io

4+16 =20
(20//60 // 15) +5 = 7.5 + 5 = 12.5 Ω
𝑉𝑇 40
𝑖0 = = =3.2 𝐴 80
𝑅𝑒𝑞 12.5
Tutorial 2 No 23

obtain the equivalent resistance at terminals a-b.

Rab = ((20 // 20) + 10) // 5 = 4 Ω

81
Tutorial 2 No 24

Find the equivalent resistance Rab

Rab =10 + (5 // 20) + (6 // 3) + 8 = 10 + 4 + 2 + 8 = 24 Ω

82
2.12 Current and Voltage Divider

• Recall: The current that pass through the series elements has the same
value.

Thus,
i1 = i2 = i3

83
2.12 Current and Voltage Divider

• Consider the following figure:

where Req = R1 + R2

84
2.11 Current and Voltage Divider

• Consider the following figure:

• Applying Ohm’s law to each of the resistors,

v1 = iR1 , v2 = iR2 (1)

85
2.12 Current and Voltage Divider

• KVL (clockwise):
v1 + v2 – v = 0 (2)
• Combining both the above equation,
v = v1+ v2 = i(R1 + R2)

v
or i (3)
R1  R2

86
2.12 Current and Voltage Divider

• For 2 resistors R1 and R2 with supply voltage Vs;

R1
v1  Vs
R1  R2
R2
v2  Vs
R1  R2
• The above equation is called the principle of voltage division.

• The source voltage v is divided among the resistors in direct proportion to

their resistances; the larger the resistance, the larger the voltage drop.

87
 Voltage Divider
• Find v1 and v2 in the circuit of the
following figure by using voltage
divider:

V1=12V, V2=-6V

88
Voltage Divider (Tutorial 2 No 16)

Calculate Vo in the circuit of the following figure:

(6.4V)

89
 Voltage Divider
• Find voltage across 6Ω

V= 4.5V

90
• Find voltage across 5Ω

V=20V

91
2.12 Current and Voltage Divider

Note that elements in parallel have the same voltage

drops across them.

92
2.12 Current and Voltage Divider

• Consider the following figure:

1 1 1
where
 
Req R1 R2
R1R2
 Req 
R1  R2
93
2.12 Current and Voltage Divider

• Consider the following figure:

• Applying Ohm’s law to each of the resistors,

v = i1R1 , v = i2R2
94 94
2.12 Current and Voltage Divider

or v v
i1  i2 
R1 R2
(4)

• Applying KCL at node a gives the total current i

as
i = i 1 + i2 (5)

• Substituting eq 4 into 5, yields

v v  1 1   R1  R2 
i  v  v (6)
R1 R2  R1 R2   R1R2 
95 95
2.12 Current and Voltage Divider

 R1R2 
• From eq 6 v i 
 R1  R2 

(7)

• Substituting eq 7 into 4 gives,

iR2 iR1
i1  i2 
R1  R2 R1  R2
(8)

• Equation 8 is known as the principle of current 96 96

Example of current divider

97
EXERCISE

EXAMPLE 2.12 (Pg.50)-Sadiku

Find io and vo in the circuit below. Calculate the power dissipated in the 3Ω
resistor.

Answer:
vo =4 V, io =4/3 A, 5.333 W

98 98
EXERCISE

𝑖1 𝑖2
Find:
• i1,
• i2,
• Vo,
• voltage drop on 1 kΩ and 5 kΩ resistors
• power absorbed by 1 kΩ resistor(Non-anonymous question )
• Volt sosurce

99
EXERCISE

EXAMPLE 2.13 (Pg.51)-Sadiku

For the circuit shown below, determine:
(a) the voltage vo,
(b) the power supplied by the current source,
(c) the power absorbed by each resistor.

Answer: (a) vo = 180 V, (b) 5.4 W, P12kΩ=1.2W, P9kΩ=3.6W, P6kΩ=0.6W,

(solution : next slide)

100 10
0
101
EXERCISE
PRACTISE PROBLEM 2.13 (Pg.52)-Sadiku
For the circuit shown below, find:
(a) v1 and v2,
(b) the power dissipated in the 3-kΩ and 20-kΩ resistors, and
(c) the power supplied by the current source.

Answer: (a) 15 V, 20 V, (b) 75 mW, 20 mW, (c) 200 mW.

(solution : next slide)

102 10
2
103
 parallel
Another option:

// 20k
= 4k

// (3k + 1k) =
2k

𝑉 𝑠 =𝑣2=𝑣5𝑘=𝑣1𝑘 +𝑣1=2𝑘 ( 10𝑚)= 20𝑉

104
EXERCISE (CD, VD)

PRACTISE PROBLME 2.12 (Pg.51)-Sadiku

Find v1 and v2 in the circuit shown below. Also calculate i1 and i2 and the
power dissipated in the 12Ω and 40Ω resistors.

Answer: v1 = 5 V, i1 = 416.7 mA, p1 = 2.083 W, v2 = 10 V,

i2 = 250 mA, p2 = 2.5 W. (solution : next slide)
105 10
5
Find v1 and v2 , i1 and i2 and the power dissipated in the 12Ω and 40Ω resistors.

𝑃=?

𝑃=?

Answer: v1 = 5 V, i1 = 416.7 mA, p1 = 2.083 W, v2 = 10 V, i2 = 250 mA, p2 = 2.5 W.

106 10
6
(another option: solve using nodal analysis)

107
 Tutorial 2 no 15 (CD)
For the network in the following figure, find the current, voltage, and power
associated with the 20-kΩ resistor.
Ans: (0.1A; 2kV; 0.2kW)

𝑃 , 𝐼 ,𝑉

108
Example CD

𝑉𝑜
=?
𝑉𝑠

…. (1)

but …. (2)

Substituting (2) into (1): 𝑉𝑜

so
109
Tutorial 2 No 20 (CD)

Find I and Vo in the following circuit : (Ans: 0.5A; 1.5V)

To find i, we must find the

equivalent resistance, Req:
(50 series 30) // 20 = 16 Ω

Req = ((24+16)//40) + 10 = 30 Ω
𝑉 15
∴ 𝐼𝑇 = = =0.5 𝐴
𝑅 𝑒𝑞 30
110
… cont
Find I and Vo in the following circuit : (Ans: 0.5A; 1.5V)

Find Vo :

Thus,
111
(another option: solve using nodal analysis)

112
2.13 Wye-Delta Transformation

• Some resistors are combined neither in series nor parallel. For

example,

113 11
3
2.13 Wye-Delta Transformation

• These type of connection can be simplified by using three-

terminal equivalent network.

114 11
4
2.13 Wye-Delta Transformation

• The wye (Y) / tee (T) network and the delta (Δ) / pi (π).

• The wye network can be converted into the delta network and
vice versa.

• This conversion will simplify the circuit analysis.

• Note: This conversion did not take anything out of the circuit
or put in anything new.

115 11
5
2.13 Wye-Delta Transformation
• Delta-Wye conversion:
Rb Rc
R1 
Ra  Rb  Rc

Ra Rc
R2 
Ra  Rb  Rc

Ra Rb
R3 
Ra  Rb  Rc

116 11
6
2.13 Wye-Delta Transformation
• Wye-Delta conversion:
R1R2  R2R3  R3 R1
Ra 
R1

R1R2  R2R3  R3 R1
Rb 
R2

R1R2  R2R3  R3 R1
Rc 
R3

117 11
7
 cont’d..
useful when the resistors are
neither in parallel nor in series

Delta -> Star Star -> Delta

Rb Rc R1 R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
R1  Ra 
( Ra  Rb  Rc ) R1

Rc R a R1R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
Rb 
R2  R2
( Ra  Rb  Rc )

Ra Rb R1R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
R3  Rc 
( Ra  Rb  Rc ) R3

118
118
2.13 Wye-Delta Transformation

EXAMPLE

1)Convert the delta network to wye network

119 11
9
2.13 Wye-Delta Transformation

Rb Rc 10(25) 250
R1     5
Ra  Rb  Rc 15  10  25 50

Ra Rc 25(15) 375
R2     7.5
Ra  Rb  Rc 15  10  25 50

Ra Rb 15(10) 150
R3     3
Ra  Rb  Rc 15  10  25 50
120 12
0
2.13 Wye-Delta Transformation

Converted delta to wye network:

121 12
1
2.13 Wye-Delta Transformation

2) Convert the wye network to delta network

R1R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
Ra 
R1
10(20)  20(40)  40(10) 1400
   140
10 10

R1R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
Rb 
R2
1400
  70
20

R1R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
Rc 
R3
Answer: 1400
  35
Ra = 140Ω; Rb = 70Ω ; Rc = 35Ω 40

redraw delta network with R values!

122
2.13 Wye-Delta Transformation

3) Obtain the equivalent resistance Rab and i for the circuit below.

Rb Rc
R1 
Ra  Rb  Rc

Ra Rc
R2 
Ra  Rb  Rc

Ra Rb
R3 
Ra  Rb  Rc
123 12
3
2.13 Wye-Delta Transformation

Rb Rc
R1 
Ra  Rb  Rc

Ra Rc
R2 
Ra  Rb  Rc

Ra Rb
R3 
Ra  Rb  Rc

Answer: Rab = 9.632Ω & i = 12.458A 124 124

 R R  R2 R3  R3 R1 R1R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
Other option R R  R2 R3  R3 R1 Rb  1 2 Rc 
Ra  1 2 R3
R1 R2

325
Ra   65
5
325
Rb   21.667
15
325
Rc   26
12.5
Rb // 10  6.842
Rc // 20  11 .304
Rab  (6.842  11 .304) // Ra // 30  9.632

125
 Practice Problem 2.15 (Pg 58)
For the bridge network below, find Rab and i.

500  1000  200 1700

Ra    34
50 50
1700
Rb   85
20
1700
Rc   170
10
Ra // 24  14.069
Rc // 30  25.5
Rab  (14.069  25.5) // Rb  13  40

Answer: 40Ω , 2.5 A.

126
 Option 2
(delta-star)

127
Tutorial 2 No 26
Determine V (Ans: 42.18V)

12 (10)
𝑅 𝑎= =2.85 Ω
12+ 10+20
20(10)
𝑅 𝑏= = 4.76 Ω
12+10+ 20
12 (20)
𝑅 𝑐= =5.71 Ω
12+ 10+20

(15 series a) // (30 series b) = 11.79Ω 128

 .. cont
Determine V

Rd = (11.79+c)//35 = 11.672 Ω

please maintain the position of V !

By Volt. Divider:

Rd
11.672 Ω

129
.. cont (other method:using CD

Determine V

Rd = (11.79+c)//35 = 11.672 Ω
Rd
11.672 Ω

By Volt. Divider:

130
 2.14 Node/Nodal Analysis
• Nodal voltage or Branch voltage analysis provides a general procedure for
analyzing circuits using node voltages as the circuit variables.

• EXAMPLE 1
Practice Problem 3.1 (pg85) – circuit with independent current source

131 13
1
2.14 Node/Nodal Analysis
• Steps :

1. Assign nodes and name as v1,v2,…,

2. assign current direction at each node & name
the currents
3. Apply KCL at each node (no. of KCL equation =
no. of nodes)
4. Substitute each i with Ohm’s law
5. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to
obtain the unknown node voltages

132 13
2
2.14 Node/Nodal Analysis
EXAMPLE 1
Apply KCL at
node 1 and 2
v1 v2

133 13
3
 i2

i1 i3

*Answer v1 = -2V, v2 = -14V 134

 i2

i1 i3

𝑣6 Ω
𝑖2 =𝑖6 Ω =
6

*Answer v1 = -2V, v2 = -14V 135

Solving 2 equations using calculator

4V1  V2  6
7V1  13V2  168

136
Example 3.2 (pg86) – current with dependant current
source

137
 V4  V2 

0.75V1  0.5V2  0.25V3  3

 0.5V1  0.875V2  0.125V3  0

Rearranging the terms,

 0.75V1  1.125V2  0.375V3  0

138
*Answer v1= 4.8V, v2 = 2.4V, v3 = -2.4V
@ Sadiku No 3.2

139
 @ Sadiku No 3.2

How about
changing the
arrow of I1?

140
Tutorial 2 No 30
use node analysis to calculate the currents i1 through i4. Ans: (4A,2A,1A,2A)

𝑉1
KCL at V1, KCL at V2,

∴𝑖1= =4𝐴
5 141
Sadiku Prob 3.3

𝑲𝑪𝑳𝒂𝒕𝑽 𝒐 ,
142
Sadiku Prob 3.5

𝑣𝑜

𝑲𝑪𝑳𝒂𝒕𝑽 𝒐, 143
Sadiku Prob 3.5

𝑣𝑜

𝑲𝑪𝑳𝒂𝒕𝑽 𝒐, 144
Sadiku Prob 3.6
10//5 =

𝑉1

𝑲𝑪𝑳𝒂𝒕𝑽𝟏, 145
Sadiku Prob 3.7

KCL
𝑉𝑥

146
Sadiku Prob 3.8
Using nodal analysis, find Vo
(Ans: 12 V)

147
Using nodal analysis, find Vo
(Ans: 12 V)

148
Sadiku Prob 3.9
Using nodal analysis, find Ib
(Ans: 79.34 mA)

𝑉1

24 −𝑉 1
KCL 24 −𝑉 1 𝑉 1 𝑉 1 −60 ( 250 )
= +
250 50 150

79.388 mA

149
Tutorial 2 No 26 (use Nodal analysis)

Determine V (Ans: 42.18V)

𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3

𝒂𝒕𝑽 𝟏 , 𝒂𝒕𝑽 𝟐 , 𝒂𝒕𝑽 𝟑 ,

∴ 𝑽 𝟏=𝟒𝟐 . 𝟐𝑽 =𝑽
150
151
152
Find Vo

Volt. Divider rule

153
Sadiku Prob 3.10
𝑉 1=− 32𝑉
Find Io by using nodal analysis
𝑖1

𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3

𝑖2 𝑖3

KCL KCL KCL

=0

𝑉 1=−32𝑉 154
Sadiku Prob 3.11
Find Vo and the power dissipated in all the resistors
𝑖1

𝑖2 𝑖3

(𝑉 ¿ ¿ 12Ω)2 (𝑉 ¿ ¿ 𝑜− 60)2
KCL 𝑃 12(𝑎𝑡 𝑖 )= = =270.75 𝑊 ¿ ¿
1
12 12
=0
2
𝑉0 3
2
𝑃 12(𝑎𝑡 𝑖 )= = =750 𝑚𝑊
2
12 12

2 2
(𝑉 ¿¿ 6 Ω) (𝑉 ¿ ¿ 𝑜+24)
𝑃6= = =121.5 𝑊 ¿ ¿
6 6

155
Sadiku Prob 3.12
Find Vo by using nodal analysis
𝑖1 𝑉1 𝑉0𝑖 3

𝑖2

KCL KCL
=0

156
Sadiku Prob 3.13
Find v1 and v2 by using nodal analysis

𝑖1
𝑖2

KCL

∴ 𝑣 1=8 𝑖1 =8 (
𝑣 2+ 10
10 )
=40 𝑉

Or by volt divider,

157
Sadiku Prob 3.14
Find v0 by using nodal analysis (Ans: 50 V)

𝑣 1𝑖 2 𝑣0
𝑖1 𝑖4

𝑖3

KCL KCL

158
Sadiku Prob 3.17
Find i0 by using nodal analysis (Ans: 1.73 A)

𝑣1
𝑖1 𝑖3

6 0𝑉 𝑖2
𝑣2

KCL KCL

60 − 𝑣 1
𝑖0 = =𝟏 . 𝟕𝟑
4 159
(sadiku 3.64)
Find vx and ix in the circuit
solve for Vo. (sadiku 3.67) (ans: –30 V)

161
Ans: 57 V, 18 A

162
Use nodal analysis to find and i1, i2, i3 (Prob 3.52 Sadiku)

163
Use nodal analysis to find and i1, i2, i3 (Prob 3.52 Sadiku)

164
2.15 Mesh Analysis

• Mesh (Loop) analysis provides another general

procedure for analyzing circuits using mesh currents
as the circuit variables.
• Nodal analysis applies KCL to find unknown voltages
in a given circuit, while mesh analysis applies KVL
to find unknown currents.
• A mesh is a loop which does not contain any other
loops within it.

165 16
5
2.15 Mesh Analysis

Steps to determine the mesh currents:

1. Identify mesh (loops)
2. Assign mesh currents i1, i2, …, in to the n meshes.

3. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s

law to express the voltages in terms of the mesh
currents.
4. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get
the mesh currents.

166 16
6
2.15 Mesh Analysis

Steps to determine the mesh currents:

1. Identify meshes (loops)

167 16
7
2.15 Mesh Analysis

Steps to determine the mesh currents:

2. Assign mesh currents i1, i2, …, in to the n meshes.

168 16
8
2.15 Mesh Analysis

Steps to determine the mesh currents:

3. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to express the
voltages in terms of the mesh currents.

Remember …..

VR = I 1 R VR = (I1 – I2 ) R
Loop 1 :–V1 + 1000I1 + 1000(I1 – I2) = 0
2000I1 – 1000I2 = V1 ……………(1)

Loop 2 : 1000(I2 – I1)+ 1000I2 + V2 = 0

-1000I1 + 2000I2 = –V2………….(2)
169
2.15 Mesh Analysis

Steps to determine the mesh currents:

4. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh currents.
1kW 1kW

V1
+
–
I1 +¿ 1kW
I2
+
– V2

Let: V1 = 7V and V2 = 4V
Results:
I1 = 3.33 mA
I2 = –0.33 mA
Finally
Vout = (I1 – I2) 1kΩ = 3.66V
170
Example 1 – circuit with dependent voltage source

Find I1 , I2 , I3

−15 +𝑉 5 Ω +𝑉 10 Ω +10=0

=5.... (1)

𝑉 6 Ω + 𝑉 4 Ω +𝑉 10 Ω −10=0

−10 𝑖1 +20 𝑖 2=10 … ..( 2)

171
𝑖1= 𝑖2 +𝑖3
Example 2 – circuit with dependent voltage source

Calculate the mesh currents i1 and i2 in the circuit below :

… (1)

-12 … (2)

172
Example 3 - circuit with dependent voltage source

Find I0

I1 = 2.25A, I2= 0.75A, I3 = 1.5A

Io = I1-I2 =1.5A 173

Example 4 – circuit with dependent & Independent voltage sources

Using mesh analysis, find io in the circuit below:

𝑖3

𝑖1 𝑖2

I1 = -3.214A, I2 = -9.643A, I3 = -5A,

I0 = I 3 174
Example 5 – circuit with current source

Using mesh analysis, find current through 6Ω resistor in the circuit below:

i3
In loop 1;

In loop 2;

Let i6   i3
i1  i2  i3
 i3  2  (5)  3A 175
Example 3.2 (pg86) – use mesh analysis to find V2

Method 1:
Mode equation
(calculator)

Method 2:
substitution

176
*Answer v1= 4.8V, v2 = 2.4V, v3 = -2.4V
Tutorial 2 no 33: Find Vo by mesh analysis

Ans: 20V

177
Tutorial 2 no 31: Find V drop across 6Ω by mesh analysis

Ans: 2.4V

178
179
Sadiku Prob 3.11 𝑃 12(𝑎𝑡 𝑖 )=270.75 𝑊
1
𝑃 12(𝑎𝑡 𝑖 )=750𝑚𝑊
2

𝑃 6 =121.5 𝑊
Find Vo and the power dissipated in all the resistors (use mesh analysis)

𝑖3
𝑖1
𝑖2

180
Sadiku Prob 3.14
Find v0 by using mesh analysis (Ans: 50 V)

𝑖1

𝑖0

𝑖2
𝑖3

𝑎
𝑖1=12.5 𝐴
KCL at node a;
KVL in

KVL in

181
EXAMPLE 1
Find v1 and v2 by mesh analysis *Answer v1 = -2V, v2 = -14V

182 18
2
Sadiku Prob 3.69
write the node-voltage equations by inspection. @ find v1, v2 & v3

𝑉 1=36.429𝑉 183 18
3
Sadiku Prob 3.69
write the node-voltage equations by inspection.

V1=36.43 V
V2 =23.57 V
V3 =37.86 V 184 18
4
Sadiku Prob 3.71
Write the mesh-current equations. determine the values of i1, i2
and i3.

185 18
5
Sadiku Prob 3.72
Write the mesh-current equations.

186 18
6
Sadiku Prob 3.73
Write the mesh-current equations.

187 18
7
Sadiku Prob 3.84
Calculate v0 and io.

188 18
8
Sadiku 3.77
Find V1, V2

189
 Nodal versus Mesh Analysis
To select the method that results in the smaller number of
equations;

1. Choose nodal analysis for circuit with fewer nodes than

meshes.
*Choose mesh analysis for circuit with fewer meshes than
nodes.
*Networks that contain many series connected elements,
voltage sources, or supermeshes are more suitable for
mesh analysis.
*Networks with parallel-connected elements, current
sources, or supernodes are more suitable for nodal
analysis.

2. If node voltages are required, it may be expedient to apply

nodal analysis. If branch or mesh currents are required, it
may be better to use mesh analysis.
190
END Of Lecture

191 19
1