Guide to Networking Essentials

8th Edition

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not
be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Chapter 7
Network Reference Models and
Standards

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not b
e scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Objectives

• Describe the OSI and IEEE 802 networking models

• Summarize the IEEE 802 networking standards

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Introducing the OSI and IEEE 802 Networking
Models
• The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model proposed by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) provides a common framework for developers and
students of networking to work with and learn from
• The OSI model is not specific to any protocol suite and can be applied to most networking
protocols
• This model is a seven-layer organization of how data travels from place to place on any
given network

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Role of a Reference Model (1 of 2)

• To see the value of a layered model outside the field of networking, look at an example of a
letter being created, sent and delivered by the US Postal Service
• The letter has to be written
• The letter has to be placed in an envelope and addressed in the correct format
• The envelope has to be stamped
• The local post office in the destination town has to sort the letter correctly based one the
zip code and get it on the right plan to the destination
• The post office in the destination town has to sort the letter correctly for the right part of
town
• The local carrier has to deliver the letter to the correct house
• The recipient has to receive the letter, open it, and read it
• A layered approach to a complicated process reduces its complexity and turns it into a
series of interconnected tasks

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Role of a Reference Model (2 of 2)

• Each task of the previous example can be handled separately without affecting the
procedures of the other tasks.
• For example, in the step where the local carrier delivers the letter to the correct house:
• Let’s say he currently walks on his route, which takes a considerable amount of time
• He gets an “upgrade” to a delivery truck so that he can perform his task faster
• As you can see, one part of the process can change but the rest of the process remains
unchanged

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Structure of the OSI Model (1 of 7)

Figure 7-1 The seven layers of the

OSI reference model

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Structure of the OSI Model (2 of 7)

• To comprehend how a network works as a whole, you need to understand:

• How each layer functions
• What networking components and devices operate at each layer
• How layers interact with one another
• Each layer in the OSI model has its own set of well-defined functions
• The functions of each layer communicate and interact with the layers immediately above
and below it
• Example: The Transport layer works with the Network layer below it and the Session
layer above it
• You were introduced to the TCP/IP model in previous chapters so the next slide will
compare the two models

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Structure of the OSI Model (3 of 7)

Figure 7-2 Comparing the OSI model

and the TCP/IP model

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Structure of the OSI Model (4 of 7)

Figure 7-3 Layers of the OSI model in

the Ethernet0 Properties dialog box

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Structure of the OSI Model (5 of 7)

 Each layer provides services to the next higher layer until the data reaches the Application
layer
 The Application layer has the job of providing services to user applications
 Each layer on one computer behaves as though it were communicating with the same layer
on the other computer
 This behavior is known as peer communication between layers

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Structure of the OSI Model (6 of 7)

Figure 7-4 Peer communication

between OSI layers

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Structure of the OSI Model (7 of 7)

• On data’s way down the protocol stack (model):

• It’s data is divided into data units suitable for each layer
• Each unit, called protocol data units (PDU), is passed from one layer to another on its
way up or down the protocol stack
• Some layers add their own formatting to the PDU, which is called a header
(encapsulation)
• When data arrives at the receiving end, it is passed up the protocol stack:
• At each layer, software reads its PDU data and strips its header information (called
deencapsulation) and passes the PDU to the next higher layer
• The packet leaves the Application layer in a format the receiving application can read

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Application Layer

• The Application layer (Layer 7) provides interfaces for applications to access network
services
• Examples are file sharing, message handling, and database access
• Generally, components at the Application layer have both a client component and a server
component
• Common protocols found at Layer 7 include HTTP, FTP, SMB/CIFS, TFTP, and SMTP
• Possible problems at this layer include missing or misconfigured client or server software
and incompatible or obsolete commands used to communicate between a client and server

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Presentation Layer

• The Presentation layer (Layer 6) handles data formatting and translation

• For outgoing messages:
• It converts data into a format specified by the Application layer
• For incoming messages:
• It reverses the conversion if required by the receiving application
• A software component known as a “redirector” operates at this layer
• It intercepts requests for service from the computer, requests that can’t be handles
locally are redirected across the network to a network resource that can handle the
request

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Session Layer

• The Session layer (Layer 5) permits two computers to hold ongoing communications,
called a “session”, so applications on either end of the session can exchange data for as
long as the session lasts
• This layer handles communication setup ahead of data transfers and session teardown
when the session ends
• Common network functions at this layer:
• Name lookup and user logon and logoff
• The Session layer also manages the mechanics of ongoing conversations such as
identifying which side can transmit data when and for how long
• Checkpointing is performed at this layer, which is a synchronization process between two
related streams of data
• Example: keeping the audio in sync with video

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Transport Layer (1 of 4)

• The Transport layer (Layer 4) manages data transfer from one application to another
across a network
• It breaks long data streams down into smaller chunks called “segments”
• Segmenting data is important because every network technology has a maximum frame
size called the maximum transmission unit (MTU)
• The Transport layer includes flow control and acknowledgements to ensure reliability
• This layer also handles resequencing segments into the original data on receipt
• The PDU at this layer is a segment
• UDP’s PDU is often called a “datagram” rather than a segment

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Transport Layer (2 of 4)

Figure 7-5 The Transport layer breaks

data into segments

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Transport Layer (3 of 4)

Figure 7-6 The Transport-layer PDU: a

segment

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Transport Layer (4 of 4)

• Some key fields in the Transport-layer header include:

• Source and destination port numbers
• Sequence and acknowledgement numbers
• Window size
• Problems that can occur at this layer include segments that are too large for the medium
between source and destination networks
• This situation forces the Network layer to fragment the segments, which causes
performance degradation
• Hackers can exploit TCP’s handshaking feature with a half-open SYN attack (discussed in
Chapter 11)

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Network Layer (1 of 2)

• The Network layer (Layer 3) handles logical addressing, translates logical network
addresses (IP addresses) into physical addresses, and performs best path selection and
routing in an internetwork
• Access control is handled at this layer during the routing process
• The router consults a list of rules before forwarding an incoming packet to determine
whether a packet meeting certain criteria should be permitted through
• Software components working at this layer include IP, ARP and ICMP
• Routers operate at this layer
• A switch with routing capabilities (called a “Layer 3 switch”), also works at the Network layer
• Problems that can occur at the Network layer often include:
• Incorrect IP addresses or subnet masks, incorrect router configuration, and router
operation errors

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Network Layer (2 of 2)

Figure 7-7 The Network-layer PDU: a

packet

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Data Link Layer (1 of 3)

• The Data Link layer (Layer 2) works with frames and is the intermediary between the
Network layer and Physical layer
• It defines how computers access the network medium (also called media access control)
• The MAC address is defined at this layer
• A layer 2 frame consists of both a header and a trailer component:
• The trailer component is labeled “FCS” (frame check sequence) and contains the CRC
error-checking code
• The CRC value is recalculated on the receiving end
• If the sent and recalculated values agree, the assumption is that the data wasn’t altered
during transmission
• The Data Link layer discards frames containing CRC and other frame errors

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Data Link Layer (2 of 3)

Figure 7-8 The Data Link-layer PDU: a

frame

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Data Link Layer (3 of 3)

• The Data Link header contains fields for source and destination addresses
• After receiving a frame from the Physical layer and verifying the destination MAC address
and the CRC, the Data Link layer strips its header and trailer information from the frame
• It then sends the resulting packet up to the Network Layer for further processing
• The software component operating at this layer is in the NIC driver
• Hardware components that operate at this layer include NICs and switches
• Problems at this layer include collisions and invalid frames, which can be caused by
collisions, poor network design, line noise, or NIC driver problems
• Another problem at this layer results from trying to use incompatible network technologies

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Physical Layer (1 of 2)

• The Physical layer (Layer 1) converts bits into signals for outgoing messages and signals
into bits for incoming messages
• The type of signals generated depend on the medium:
• Wire media uses electrical pulses, fiber-optic uses light pulses and wireless media uses
radio waves
• Details for creating a physical network connection are specified at this layer
• Example: the type of connectors used to attach the medium to the NIC

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Physical Layer (2 of 2)

• Encoding is representing 0s and 1s by a physical signal such as electrical voltage or a light

pulse
• Encoding happens at the Physical layer
• Components at this layer include all the cable and connectors used on the medium, along
with repeaters and hubs
• Problems occurring here are often related to:
• Incorrect media termination
• EMI or noise that scrambles the signals
• NICs and hubs that are misconfigured or malfunctioning

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Summary of the OSI Model (1 of 3)

• The OSI model is a helpful way to categorize and compartmentalize networking activities
• The OSI model helps explain how data is formatted and how it moves up and down the
protocol stack and from computer to computer
• Table 7-2 on the following slides summarizes the actions occurring at each layer

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Summary of the OSI Model (2 of 3)

Layer PDU Protocols/software Devices Function

7. Application Data HTTP, FTP, SMTP, Computers Provides programs with access to
DHCP network services
6. Presentation Data Redirectors N/A Handles data representation to
application and data conversions,
ensures that data can be read by the
receiving system, and handles
encryption and decryption
5. Session Data DNS, authentication, N/A Establishes, maintains, and coordinates
protocols communication between applications
4. Transport Segment TCP, UDP N/A Ensures reliable delivery of data,
breaks data into segments, handles
sequencing and acknowledgements,
and provides flow control

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Summary of the OSI Model (3 of 3)

Layer PDU Protocols/software Devices Function

3. Network Packet IP, ICMP, ARP Routers, Handles packet routing, logical
firewalls, Layer 3 addressing, and access control
switches through packet inspection
2. Data Link Frame Ethernet, token ring, Switches, NIC Provides physical device addressing,
FDDI, NIC drivers device-to-device delivery of frames,
media access control, and MAC
addresses
1. Physical Bits N/A Network media, Manages hardware connections,
hubs/repeaters, handles sending and receiving of
connectors binary signals, and handles
encoding of bits

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 IEEE 802 Networking Standards

• The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) defined LAN standards to
ensure that network interfaces and cabling from multiple manufacturers would be
compatible
• This effort was called Project 802 to indicate the year (1980) and the month (Feb) of its
inception
• IEEE 802 predates the OSI Model
• Most of the standards affect the elements from the lower two levels of the OSI Model
• The 802 specifications describes how NICs can access and transfer data across a variety of
networking media and what’s involved in attaching, managing, and detaching these devices
in a network

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 IEEE 802 Specifications (1 of 4)

• The IEEE numbers the collections of 802 documents starting with 802.1, 802.2, etc…
• When a technology is enhanced each enhancement is specified by letters after the number
• For example: 802.3 is the original Ethernet and 802.3u specifies 100BaseT Ethernet
• Table 7-3 on the following slides lists the major 802 categories
• The 802.3 and 802.11 are the most widely used technologies of Ethernet and Wi-Fi, as of
this point

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 IEEE 802 Specifications (2 of 4)

Standard Name Explanation

802.1 Internetworking Covers routing, bridging, and internetwork communication

802.2 Logical Link Control Covers error control and flow control over data frames (inactive)

802.3 Ethernet LAN Covers all forms of Ethernet media and interfaces, from 10 Mbps
to 10 Gbps (10 Gigabit Ethernet)
802.4 Token Bus LAN Covers all forms of token bus media and interfaces (disbanded)

802.5 Token Ring LAN Covers all forms of token ring media and interfaces

802.6 Metropolitan Area Covers MAN technologies, addressing, and services (disbanded)
Network
802.7 Broadband Technical Covers broadband networking media, interfaces, and other
Advisory Group equipment (disbanded)
802.8 Fiber-Optic Technical Covers use of fiber-optic media and technologies for various
Advisory Group network types (disbanded)

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 IEEE 802 Specifications (3 of 4)

Standard Name Explanation

802.9 Integrated Voice/Data Covers integration of voice and data traffic over a single network
Networks medium (disbanded)
802.10 Network Security Covers network access controls, encryption, certification, and
other security topics (disbanded)
802.11 Wireless Networks Sets standards for wireless networking for many different
broadcast frequencies
802.12 High-Speed Networking Covers a variety of 100 Mbps-plus technologies, including 100VG-
AnyLAN (disbanded)
802.13 Unused

802.14 Cable Modems Specifies data transport over cable TV (disbanded)

802.15 Wireless PAN Covers standards for wireless personal area networks

802.16 Wireless MAN (WiMAX) Covers wireless metropolitan area networks

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 IEEE 802 Specifications (4 of 4)

Standard Name Explanation

802.17 Resilient Packet Ring Covers emerging standards for very high-speed, ring-based LANs
and MANs
802.18 Wireless Advisory Group A technical advisory group that monitors radio-based wireless
standards
802.19 Coexistence Advisory A group that addresses issues of coexistence with current and
Group developing standards
802.20 Mobile Broadband A group working to enable always-on, multivendor, mobile
Wireless broadband wireless access
802.21 Media Independent A group working to enable handoff between wireless networks of
Handoff the same or different types
802.22 Wireless Regional Area A group of working to bring broadband access to hard-to-reach
Network low-population areas
802.23 Emergency Services A group working to facilitate civil authority communication
Working Group systems

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 IEEE 802 Extensions to the OSI Reference Model (1
of 2)
• The two lowest layers of the OSI model define how computers attach to specific network
media
• These layers also specify how more than one computer can access the network without
causing interference with other computers on the network
• The IEEE 802 specification expanded the OSI model by separating the Data Link layer
into these sublayers:
• Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer controls data-link communication and defines
the use of logical interface points used to communicate to the upper OSI layers
• Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer manages access to the physical medium
and communicates with the Physical layer

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
IEEE 802 Extensions to the OSI Reference Model (2
of 2)

Figure 7-9 The IEEE 802 standard

divides the OSI Data Link layer into
two sublayers

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Chapter Summary (1 of 2)

• The OSI reference model and IEEE Project 802 define a frame of reference for networking
and specify the operation of most networking technologies in current use
• The OSI reference model separates networking into seven layers, each with its own
purposes and activities
• Following is a summary of the functions of each OSI Model layer:
• Application – Provides access to network resources
• Presentation – Handles data formatting and translation
• Session – Manages ongoing conversations between two computers
• Transport – Breaks long data streams into smaller chunks (segments)
• Network – Provides best path selection and IP addressing
• Data Link – Defines how computers access the media
• Physical – Converts bits into signals and defines media and connectors

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Chapter Summary (2 of 2)

• The IEEE 802 project defines a set of networking standards to ensure that network
interfaces and cabling from multiple manufacturers would be compatible
• The IEEE 802.2 standard specifies a Logical Link Control (LLC) and Media Access Control
(MAC) sublayer

Greg Tomsho, Guide to Networking Essentials, 8th Edition. © 2020 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned,
copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.