Chapter Four

The OSI and the TCP/IP Communication Models

Part- I

Data Communication and Computer Networks

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Communication and Layer Architecture
 A network is a combination of hardware and software that sends data from one

location to another.
 The hardware consists of the physical equipment that carries signals from one

point of the network to another.

 The software consists of instruction sets that make possible the services that we

expect from a network

 For example, the task of sending an e-mail from one point in the world to another

can be broken into several tasks, each performed by a separate software package.

 Each software package uses the services of another software package.

 At the lowest layer, a signal, or a set of signals, is sent from the source computer

to the destination computer.

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Contd.
Protocols are used during communication for :
1. Message Encoding:- is the process of converting information into another,
acceptable form, for transmission. Decoding reverses this process in order to
interpret the information
2. Message formatting and Encapsulation

3. Message Size:- The size restrictions of frames require the source host to break a
long message into individual pieces that meet both the minimum and maximum
size requirements. This is known as segmenting.
4. Message Timing
 Access Method:- determines when someone is able to send a message.

 Flow Control:- how much information can be sent and the speed that it can be
delivered.
 Response Timeout:- how long to wait for responses and what action to take if a
3 response timeout occurs.
Layered Tasks

 We use the concept of layers in our daily life.

 As an example, let us consider two friends who communicate through postal

mail.
 The process of sending a letter to a friend would be complex if there were no

services available from the post office.

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 What Actually Happens in Postal Communication?
Postal communication takes place through many layers.

Logical communication

Secretary:
Secretary: reads and reports
types a letter the message

Delivery boy: Delivery boy:

drops the letter takes the letter

Postal truck

Post office:
Processes and routes the letter
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Contd.

 A communication architecture is a strategy for connecting host computers

and other communicating equipment.

 It defines necessary elements for data communication between devices.

 A communication architecture, therefore, defines a standard for the

communicating hosts.

 A programmer formats data in a manner defined by the communication

architecture and passes it on to the communication software.

 Separating communication functions adds flexibility, for example, we do

not need to modify the entire host software to include more communication
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devices.
Contd.

 Layer architecture simplifies the network design.

 It is easy to debug network applications in a layered architecture network.

 The network management is easier due to the layered architecture.

 Network layers follow a set of rules, called protocol.

 The protocol defines the format of the data being exchanged, and the control

and timing for the handshake between layers.

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 4-1 LAYERED TASKS
We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an
example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.

Topics discussed in this section:

Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
Hierarchy

4.9
Figure 4.1 Tasks involved in sending a letter

4.10
Standards Organizations

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Open Standards

 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

12 The International Organization for Standards (ISO)

Advantages of Open Standards
 Open standards encourage competition and innovation.

 They also guarantee that no single company’s product can monopolize the

market, or have an unfair advantage over its competition.

 A good example of this is when purchasing a wireless router for the home.

There are many different choices available from a variety of vendors, all of
which incorporate standard protocols such as IPv4, DHCP, 802.3 (Ethernet),
and 802.11 (Wireless LAN).
 These open standards also allow a client running Apple’s OS X operating

system to download a web page from a web server running the Linux
operating system. This is because both operating systems implement the open
standard protocols, such as those in the TCP/IP suite.
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Reference Models
 A layered model, such as the TCP/IP model, is often used to help visualize the

interaction between various protocols.

 A layered model depicts the operation of the protocols occurring within each layer, as

well as the interaction of protocols with the layers above and below each layer.
 There are benefits to using a layered model to describe network protocols and

operations. Using a layered model:

 Assists in protocol design, because protocols that operate at a specific layer have defined
information that they act upon and a defined interface to the layers above and below.
 Fosters competition because products from different vendors can work together.
 Prevents technology or capability changes in one layer from affecting other layers above
and below.
 Provides a common language to describe networking functions and capabilities.
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Contd.
There are two basic types of networking models:

1. Protocol model:- This model closely matches the structure of a particular

protocol suite.
 The hierarchical set of related protocols in a suite typically represents all the
functionality required to interface the human network with the data network.
 The TCP/IP model is a protocol model, because it describes the functions that occur
at each layer of protocols within the TCP/IP suite.

1. Reference model:- provides consistency within all types of network

protocols and services by describing what has to be done at a particular layer,

but not prescribing how it should be accomplished.
 A reference model is not intended to be an implementation specification or to provide
a sufficient level of detail to define precisely the services of the network architecture.
 The primary purpose of a reference model is to aid in clearer understanding of the
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functions and processes involved.
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
 International standard organization (ISO) established a committee in 1977 to

develop an open architecture for computer communication.

 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model is the result of this effort.

 In 1984, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model was approved

as an international standard for communications architecture.

 Term “open” denotes the ability to connect any two systems which conform

to the reference model and associated standards.

 The OSI model is now considered the primary Architectural model for inter-

computer communications.
 It is the most widely known internetwork reference model used for data

network design, operation specifications, and troubleshooting.

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Contd.
 The OSI model describes how information from a software application in

one computer, moves through a network medium to a software application

in another computer.

 The OSI model describes how information or data makes its way from

application programmes (such as spread sheets) through a network medium

(such as wire) to another application programme located on another
network.

 The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving information

between computers over a network medium into SEVEN smaller and more
manageable problems.
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 This separation into smaller more manageable functions is known as
 4-2 THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

Topics discussed in this section:

Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation
4.18
 Note

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.

4.19
Figure 4.2 Seven layers of the OSI model

4.20
Figure 4.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model

4.21
Figure 4.4 An exchange using the OSI model

4.22
 4-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

In this section we briefly describe the functions of each

layer in the OSI model.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer

4.23
Figure 4.5 Physical layer

4.24
 Note

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

4.25
Figure 4.6 Data link layer

4.26
 Note

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.

4.27
Figure 4.7 Hop-to-hop delivery

4.28
Figure 4.8 Network layer

4.29
 Note

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.

4.30
Figure 4.9 Source-to-destination delivery

4.31
Figure 4.10 Transport layer

4.32
 Note

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.

4.33
gure 4.11 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

4.34
Figure 4.12 Session layer

4.35
 Note

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.

4.36
Figure 4.13 Presentation layer

4.37
 Note

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.

4.38
Figure 4.14 Application layer

4.39
 Note

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.

4.40
Figure 4.15 Summary of layers

4.41
 4-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly

match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP
protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-
network, internet, transport, and application. However,
when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the
TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical,
data link, network, transport, and application.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical and Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
4.42
Figure 4.16 TCP/IP and OSI model

4.43
 4-5 ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing

the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses

4.44
Figure 4.17 Addresses in TCP/IP

4.45
igure 4.18 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

4.46
 Example 4.1

In Figure 4.19 a node with physical address 10 sends a

frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes
are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the figure
shows, the computer with physical address 10 is the
sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is the
receiver.

4.47
Figure 4.19 Physical addresses

4.48
 Example 4.2

Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical

address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2
hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as shown
below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

4.49
 Example 4.3

Figure 4.20 shows a part of an internet with two routers

connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or router)
has a pair of addresses (logical and physical) for each
connection. In this case, each computer is connected to
only one link and therefore has only one pair of addresses.
Each router, however, is connected to three networks (only
two are shown in the figure). So each router has three
pairs of addresses, one for each connection.

4.50
Figure 4.20 IP addresses

4.51
 Example 4.4

Figure 4.21 shows two computers communicating via the

Internet. The sending computer is running three processes
at this time with port addresses a, b, and c. The receiving
computer is running two processes at this time with port
addresses j and k. Process a in the sending computer
needs to communicate with process j in the receiving
computer. Note that although physical addresses change
from hop to hop, logical and port addresses remain the
same from the source to destination.

4.52
Figure 4.21 Port addresses

4.53
 Note

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,

but the logical addresses usually remain the same.

4.54
 Example 4.5

A port address is a 16-bit address represented by one

decimal number as shown.

753

A 16-bit port address represented

as one single number.

4.55
 ?
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