Circuit analysis and simulation
Dr. Ugochukwu .C. Nnamdi
Center for Information and Telecommunication
Engineering
Fundamentals of AC Circuits
• Alternating currents or sinusoids.
• Alternating voltages are used throughout the world in both homes and
industries.
Generation of Alternating voltages and currents
AC Values
• Instantaneous values
• Average or mean value
• Effective value
• Examples
i. Calculate the rms value of a sinusoidal current of
maximum value 20A
ii. Determine the peak and mean values for a 240V mains
supply
Sinusoids
• A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of sine or cosine function.
Consider the sinusoidal voltage
Where
= the amplitude of the sinusoid
w= angular frequency in radians
t = time
To convert the sine function to the cosine function, we will need a
trigonometric identity
Examples
Express the following as cosine functions.
i. )
Find the magnitude, angular frequency, frequency, and phase angle of each of the
following functions.
ii. -2.5cos(2
An alternating voltage is given by: v = 75sin (200πt – 0.25) volts. Find (a) the
amplitude, (b) the peak-to-peak value, (c) the rms value, (d) the periodic time, (e)
the frequency, and (f) the phase angle (in degrees and minutes) relative to
75sin200πt.
Phasors
• A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase
of a sinusoid. Phasors provide a simple means of analyzing linear
circuits excited by sinusoidal sources.
Given the sinusoid
Its phasor V is:
A complex number z can be written in polar or exponential
form as:
Z= x + jy (Rectangular form)
Z = r (polar form)
The relationship between rectangular and the polar form is
z = x + jy = r = +j )
Examples:
Convert the following into phasors.
Let X = 8∠40° and Y = 10∠ - 30°. Evaluate the following quantities
and express your results in polar form. (a) (X + Y)X* (b) (X – Y)* (c)
(X + Y) / X
Network Theorems
Kirchhoff’s laws
Kirchhoff’s Current Law
According to this law, in any electrical network, the phasor
sum of the currents meeting at a junction. In other words, ∑I =
0 ...at a junction.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
According to this law, the phasor sum of the voltage drops
across each of the conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a
network plus the phasor sum of the e.m.fs. connected in that
path is zero.
In other words, ∑ IR + ∑ e.m.f. = 0 ...round a mesh
Use Kirchhoff’s laws to find the current flowing in each branch of the
network shown below
MESH ANALYSIS
This method which is particularly well-suited to coupled circuit
solutions employs a system of loop or mesh currents instead of branch
currents (as in Kirchhoff’s laws)
Nodal Analysis
This technique is the same although we have to deal with
circuit impedances rather than resistances and take phasor sum
of voltages and currents rather than algebraic sum.
Example
Given the circuit below and i(t) = 5 sin(1000t) amps, find v0
(t) using nodal analysis.
SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
• If a circuit has two or more independent sources, one way to determine the
value of a specific variable (voltage or current) is to use nodal or mesh
analysis. Another way is to determine the contribution of each independent
source to the variable and then add them up. The latter approach is known
as the superposition.
• The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current
through) an element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages
across (or currents through) that element due to each independent source
acting alone.
Steps to Apply Superposition Principle:
• 1. Turn off all independent sources except one source.
Find the output (voltage or current) due to that active
source
• 2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent
sources.
• 3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically
all the contributions due to the independent sources
Laplace transforms
The Laplace transform is an integral transformation of a function f(t)
from the time domain into the complex frequency domain, F(s)
The Laplace transform F(s) of the function f(t) defined for t > 0 is
LAPLACE TRANSFORMS OF ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS
Find the Laplace transforms of:
i. 6 sin 3t – 4 cos 5t
Inverse Laplace Transform
Find the inverse laplace transform of: and
Solving circuits directly using Laplace
Now, with the approach of transforming the circuit into the frequency
domain using impedances, the Laplace procedure becomes:
1. Transform the circuit. Use the Laplace transform version of the
sources and the other components become impedances.
2. Solve the circuit using any (or all) of the standard circuit analysis
techniques to arrive at the desired voltage or current, expressed in
terms of the frequency-domain sources and impedances.
3. Transform back to the time-domain. (If needed.)
Frequency domain impedances
In order to transform a circuit directly, we need frequency-domain
descriptions of the all of the components in the circuit.
Find in the circuit below assuming zero initial conditions
The transfer function H(s) is the ratio of the output response Y(s) to the
input excitation X(s), assuming all initial conditions are zero.
Thus
The transfer function depends on what we define as input and output.
Since the input and output can be either current or voltage at any place
in the circuit, there are four possible transfer functions:
Example
The output of a linear system is when the input is Find the transfer
function of the system and its impulse response
Filters
A filter is a circuit that is designed to pass signals with desired
frequencies and reject or attenuate others.
Types of filters
• Passive Filters
• Active Filters
There are four types of filters whether passive or active
• Low pass filter
• High pass filter
• Band pass filter
• Band stop filter
Resonance
Resonance is a condition in an RLC circuit in which the capacitive and
inductive reactance are equal in magnitude, thereby resulting in a purely
resistive impedance.
