Structural Analysis Notes
Structural Analysis Notes
Structural Analysis
(Class Notes)
Compiled By:
Mr. GAZANA L.
Department of Civil
Engineering Technology
2. Structural Analysis
Structural Analysis: the determination of the structural response to specific loads and
actions.
Response: measured by establishing the forces and deformations throughout the
structure
Analysis: based on engineering mechanics theory, laboratory research, experience,
and engineering judgement
3. Structural Form
The form of the structure depends on many considerations as:
Functional requirements
Aesthetic (Beauty) requirement
Surface and subsurface conditions
Material availability
Construction Expertise
Economical limitations
Environmental impact
Safety
4. Structural Elements:
1. Tie Rods:
2. Beams:
Usually straight, horizontal members used to resist bending moments and shear
forces.
Classified to the way they are supported.
Resist shear force and bending moment.
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3. Columns:
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1. Trusses:
3. Frames:
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Economical when using small beams and larger columns due to beam column action.
4. Surface Structures:
Made from materials (flexible or rigid) having very small thickness compared to its
other dimensions.
They take several shapes like “thin plates” or “shells”.
They support loads mainly in tension or compression with very little bending.
Three-Dimensional
1. Codes:
The design loading for structures is often specified in codes such as:
o Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures ASCE 7-16
o International Building Code – 2018 (IBC-2018)
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Design codes provide detailed technical standards used to establish actual structural
design. Some Examples:
o Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete by American Concrete
Institute (ACI)
o Steel Construction Manual, by American Institute of Steel Construction
(AISC)
o British Standards (BS)
o EURO Code (European Code)
2. Load Types:
Concentrated loads:
o Applied over relatively small area
o Examples: Column loads, Vehicular wheel load
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Line loads:
o Distributed along a narrow strip of the structure
o Examples: Beam self-weight, weight of wall or partition
Surface loads:
o Distributed over an area of the structure
o Examples: floor and roof loads
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3. Load Categories:
Dead Load:
o Weight of the various structural members and the weights of any objects that
are permanently attached to the structures.
o For a building, dead loads include weight of:
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Live Loads:
o Vertical loads due to human occupancy, snow, rain ponding, furniture,
partition walls and moveable equipment.
o Horizontal (lateral) loads due to wind, earthquake, water pressure,
blast/explosion, collision, etc.
o Loads produced through construction or occupancy of the
structure.
o They can be caused by weights of objects temporarily placed on a structure,
moving vehicles, or natural forces.
o Can be categorized to:
Occupancy loads of buildings (ASCE-7)
Traffic loads for bridges (AASHTO)
Impact loads
Applied over a very short period of time
Have greater effect on the structure
o Moving loads:
Dynamic significance.
Change over a period of time.
o Codes have established its data based on studying the history of such loads.
o Types of live loads:
Building Loads Snow Load
Highway Bridge Loads Earthquake Loads
Railroad Bridge Loads Hydrostatic Pressure
Impact Loads Soil Pressure
Wind Loads Other Environmental Loads
Floors are assumed to be under uniform live loads which depend on the purpose for
which the building is designed.
These loads are usually tabulated in adapted code.
These values include some protection against overloading, emergency situations,
construction loads, and serviceability requirements due to vibration.
Environmental loads:
o Snow and ice loads
o Rain loads
Accumulation of rainwater on flat roof (ponding)
Avoid by providing (2%) slope and design adequate drainage.
o Wind loads
Causes forces, vibrations, and (in some cases) instability
Depends on
Wind speed
Mass density of the air
Location of the structure
Geometry of the structure
Vibrational characteristics of the system
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o Earthquake
loads
It is the common dynamic loading associated with the ground
movement
It affects the base of the structure
The rest of the structure is affected due to inertia
Creates horizontal shear forces and deflections
Depends on
Nature of the ground movement
The inertia response of the structure
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Concentrated Load
o Concentrated Force
o Concentrated Moment
Distributed Load
o Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL)
o Linearly Varying Distributed Load (LVDU)
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3. Support Types:
Supports on beams transfer the loads to the following structural member (usually a column)
Three major types (Figure 2-2):
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4. Beam Types:
Beams can be divided into (Figure 2-4):
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5. Beam Reactions:
Reactions on beams are developed due to the applications of the various loads on
the beam.
The reactions can be calculated (determinate beams only) by applying the three
equations of equilibrium after drawing the free body diagram of the beam.
The three equations of equilibrium are:
F 0
x
F 0 y (2-1)
M 0
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2.7 Examples:
Example
(1):
Solution:
Example (2):
Solution:
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Example (3):
Solution:
Example (4):
Solution:
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Example (5):
Solution:
Figure 2-7: Sign convention for axial force, shear force, and bending moment
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For the following examples, determine the axial forces, shears, and bending moments at
points A and B of the structure shown.
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2.8.2 Examples:
Example (1):
Solution:
Example (2):
Solution:
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Example (3):
Solution:
Example (4):
Solution:
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Example (5):
Solution:
Example (6):
Solution:
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a. Determine the bending moment at the left end of the beam. If no couple is
applied at this point, the bending moment is zero at this point; go to step
3(b). Otherwise, the ordinate of the bending moment diagram at this point
changes abruptly from zero to the magnitude of the moment of the couple.
Recall that a clockwise couple causes the bending moment to increase,
whereas a counterclockwise couple causes the bending moment to decrease at
its point of application.
b. Proceeding from the point at which the bending moment was computed in
the
previous step toward the right along the length of the beam, identify the next
point at which the numerical value of the ordinate of the bending moment
diagram is to be determined. It is usually necessary to determine such values
only at the points where the numerical values of shear were computed in step
2, where the couples are applied, and where the maximum and minimum
values of bending moment occur. In addition to the points of application of
couples, the maximum and minimum values of bending moment occur at
points where the shear is zero. At a point of zero shear, if the shear changes
from positive to the left to negative to the right, the slope of the bending
moment diagram will change from positive to the left of the point to negative
to the right of it; that is, the bending moment will be maximum at this point.
Conversely, at a point of zero shear, where the shear changes from negative to
the left to positive to the right, the bending moment will be minimum. For
most common loading conditions, such as concentrated loads and uniformly
and linearly distributed loads, the points of zero shear can be located by
considering the geometry of the shear diagram. However, for some cases of
linearly distributed loads, as well as for nonlinearly distributed loads, it
becomes necessary to locate the points of zero shear by solving the expressions
for shear.
c. Determine the ordinate of the bending moment diagram at the point selected
in step 3(b) (or just to the left of it, if a couple acts at the point) by adding
algebraically the area under the shear diagram between the previous point and
the point currently under consideration to the bending moment at the
previous point (or just to the right of it, if a couple acts at the point).
d. Determine the shape of the bending moment diagram between the previous
point and the point currently under consideration (the slope of the bending
moment diagram at a point is equal to the shear at that point).
e. If no couple is acting at the point under consideration, then proceed to
step
3(f). Otherwise, determine the ordinate of the bending moment diagram just
to the right of the point by adding algebraically the magnitude of the moment
of the couple to the bending moment just to the left of the point. Thus, the
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For the following examples, draw the shear and bending moment diagrams
and the qualitative deflected shape for the beam shown.
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2.9.2 Examples:
Example (1):
Solution:
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Example (2):
Solution:
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Example (3):
Solution:
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Example (4):
Solution:
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Example (5):
Solution:
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Example (6):
Solution:
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Example (7):
Solution:
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2.10 Problems:
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1 All members are connected only at their ends by frictionless hinges in plane
trusses and by frictionless ball-and-socket joints in space trusses.
2 All loads and support reactions are applied only at the joints.
3 The centroidal axis of each member coincides with the line connecting the centers of
the adjacent joints.
3. Method of Joints:
6 If all the desired member forces and reactions have been determined, then go to the
next step. Otherwise, select another joint with no more than two unknowns, and
return to step 5.
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7- If the reactions were determined in step 4 by using the equations of equilibrium and
condition of the whole truss, then apply the remaining joint equilibrium equations
that have not been utilized so far to check the calculations. If the reactions were
computed by applying the joint equilibrium equations, then use the equilibrium
equations of the entire truss to check the calculations. If the analysis has been
performed correctly, then these extra equilibrium equations must be satisfied.
For the following examples, find the forces in the members of the truss and indicate if the
member is in tension or compression.
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3.3.2 Examples:
Example (1):
Solution:
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Example (2):
Solution:
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Example (3):
Solution:
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Example (4):
Solution:
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3.4 Problems:
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5. Method of Sections:
1. Select a section that passes through as many members as possible whose forces are
desired, but not more than three members with unknown forces. The section should
cut the truss into two parts.
2. Although either of the two portions of the truss can be used for computing the
member forces, we should select the portion that will require the least amount of
computational effort in determining the unknown forces. To avoid the necessity for
the calculation of reactions, if one of the two portions of the truss does not have any
reactions acting on it, then select this portion for the analysis of member forces and
go to the next step. If both portions of the truss are attached to external supports,
then calculate reactions by applying the equations of equilibrium and condition (if
any) to the free body of the entire truss. Next, select the portion of the truss for
analysis of member forces that has the least number of external loads and reactions
applied to it.
3. Draw the free-body diagram of the portion of the truss selected, showing all external
loads and reactions applied to it and the forces in the members that have been cut
by the section. The unknown member forces are usually assumed to be tensile and
are, therefore, shown on the free-body diagram by arrows pulling away from the
joints.
4. Determine the unknown forces by applying the three equations of equilibrium. To
avoid solving simultaneous equations, try to apply the equilibrium equations in such
a manner that each equation involves only one unknown. This can sometimes be
achieved by using the alternative systems of equilibrium equations (Sum of moment
equations) instead of the usual two-force summations and a moment summation
system of equations.
5. Apply an alternative equilibrium equation, which was not used to compute member
forces, to check the calculations. This alternative equation should preferably involve
all three-member forces determined by the analysis. If the analysis has been
performed correctly, then this alternative equilibrium equation must be satisfied.
For the following examples, use the method of sections to solve for the required members
(indicated by x) and state whether the members are in tension or compression.
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3.5.2 Examples:
Example (1):
Solution:
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Example (2):
Solution:
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Example (3):
Members: EI, JI
Solution:
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Example (4):
Members: FE, EC
Solution:
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3.6 Problems:
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Disadvantages of Frames:
In frames structures, span lengths are usually restricted to 40 ft when normal reinforced
concrete. Otherwise spans greater than that, can cause lateral deflections.
4. Comparison of Frame structures with Normal Load bearing Traditional High Rise
Building:
Selection of frame structures for the high rise building is due to their versatility and
advantages over the normal traditional load bearing structures. These include the following:
1 Actually the performance of load bearing structures is usually dependent on the mass
of structures. To fulfill this requirement of load bearing structures, there is the need
of increase in volume of structural elements (walls, slab).this increase in volume of
the structural elements leads toward the construction of thick wall. Due to such a
type of construction, labor and construction cost increases. in construction of thick
wall there will be the need of great attention, which will further reduce the speed of
construction.
2 If we make the contrast of load bearing structures with the framed structures,
framed structures appear to be more flexible, economical and can carry the heavy
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loads. Frame structures can be rehabilitated at any time. Different services can be
provided in frame structures. Thus the frame structures are flexible in use.
5. Frame Reactions:
For the following examples, calculate the reactions at the frame supports.
6.Examples:
Example (1):
Solution:
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Example (2):
Solution:
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Example (3):
Solution:
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Example (4):
Solution:
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1.Examples:
Example (1):
A Pin, D Roller
Solution:
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Example (2):
Solution:
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Example (3):
A Fixed, C Roller
Solution:
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1. Check for static determinacy. Using the procedure described in the preceding section,
determine whether or not the given frame is statically determinate. If the frame is
found to be statically determinate and stable, proceed to step 2. Otherwise, end the
analysis at this stage.
2. Determine the support reactions. Draw a free-body diagram of the entire frame, and
determine reactions by applying the equations of equilibrium and any equations of
condition that can be written in terms of external reactions only (without involving
any internal member forces). For some internally unstable frames, it may not be
possible to express all the necessary equations of condition exclusively in terms of
external reactions; therefore, it may not be possible to determine all the reactions.
However, some of the reactions for such structures can usually be calculated from the
available equations.
3. Determine member end forces. It is usually convenient to specify the directions of the
unknown forces at the ends of the members of the frame by using a common
structural (or global) X Y coordinate system, with the X and Y axes oriented in the
horizontal (positive to the right) and vertical (positive upward) directions,
respectively. Draw free-body diagrams of all the members and joints of the structure.
These free-body diagrams must show, in addition to any external loads and support
reactions, all the internal forces being exerted upon the member or the joint.
Remember that a rigid joint is capable of transmitting two force components and a
couple, a hinged joint can transmit two force components, and a roller joint can
transmit only one force component. If there is a hinge at an end of a member, the
internal moment at that end should be set equal to zero. Any load acting at a joint
should be shown on the free-body diagrams of the joint, not at the ends of the
members connected to the joint. The senses of the member end forces are not known
and can be arbitrarily assumed. However, it is usually convenient to assume the
senses of the unknown forces at member ends in the positive X and Y directions and
of the unknown couples as counterclockwise. The senses of the internal forces and
couples on the free-body diagrams of joints must be in directions opposite to those
assumed on the member ends in accordance with Newton’s third law. Compute
the member end forces as follows:
a. Select a member or a joint with three or fewer unknowns.
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b. Determine the unknown forces and moments by applying the three equations
of equilibrium to the free body of the member or joint selected in step 3(a).
c. If all the unknown forces, moments, and reactions have been determined, then
proceed to step 3(d). Otherwise, return to step 3(a).
d. Since the support reactions were calculated in step 2 by using the equations of
equilibrium and condition of the entire structure, there should be some
equations remaining that have not been utilized so far. The number of leftover
equations should be equal to the number of reactions computed in step 2. Use
these remaining equations to check the calculations. If the analysis has been
carried out correctly, then the remaining equations must be satisfied.
For some types of frames, a member or a joint that has a number of unknowns
less than or equal to the number of equilibrium equations may not be found to
start or continue the analysis. In such a case, it may be necessary to write
equilibrium equations in terms of unknowns for two or more free bodies and
solve the equations simultaneously to determine the unknown forces and
moments.
4. For each member of the frame, construct the shear, bending moment, and axial force
diagrams as follows:
a. Select a member (local) xy coordinate system with origin at either end of the
member and x axis directed along the centroidal axis of the member. The
positive direction of the y axis is chosen so that the coordinate system is right-
handed, with the z axis pointing out of the plane of the paper.
b. Resolve all the external loads, reactions, and end forces acting on the member
into components in the x and y directions (i.e., in the directions parallel and
perpendicular to the centroidal axis of the member). Determine the total
(resultant) axial force and shear at each end of the member by algebraically
adding the x components and y components, respectively, of the forces acting
at each end of the member.
c. Construct the shear and bending moment diagrams for the member by using
the procedure described before. The procedure can be applied to non-
horizontal members by considering the member end at which the origin of the
xy coordinate system is located as the left end of the member (with x axis
pointing toward the right) and the positive y direction as the upward
direction.
d. Construct the axial force diagram showing the variation of axial force along
the length of the member. Such a diagram can be constructed by using the
method of sections. Proceeding in the positive x direction from the member
end at which the origin of the xy coordinate system is located, sections are
passed after each successive change in loading along the length of the member
to determine the equations for the axial force in terms of x. According to the
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sign convention adopted before, the external forces acting in the negative x
direction (causing tension at the section) are considered to be positive. The
values of axial forces determined from these equations are plotted as ordinates
against x to obtain the axial force diagram.
5. Draw a qualitative deflected shape of the frame. Using the bending moment diagrams
constructed in step 4, draw a qualitative deflected shape for each member of the
frame. The deflected shape of the entire frame is then obtained by connecting the
deflected shapes of the individual members at joints so that the original angles
between the members at the rigid joints are maintained and the support conditions
are satisfied. The axial and shear deformations, which are usually negligibly small as
compared to the bending deformations, are neglected in sketching the deflected
shapes of frames.
It should be noted that the bending moment diagrams constructed by using the
procedure described in step 4(c) will always show moments on the compression sides of the
members. For example, at a point along a vertical member, if the left side of the member is
in compression, then the value of the moment at that point will appear on the left side.
Since the side of the member on which a moment appears indicates the direction of the
moment, it is not necessary to use plus and minus signs on the moment diagrams. When
designing reinforced concrete frames, the moment diagrams are sometimes drawn on the
tension sides of the members to facilitate the placement of steel bars used to reinforce
concrete that is weak in tension. A tension-side moment diagram can be obtained by simply
inverting (i.e., rotating through 180 degrees about the member’s axis) the corresponding
compression-side moment diagram. Only compression-side moment diagrams are considered
in this text.
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4.3.2 Examples:
Example (1):
Solution:
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Example (2):
Solution:
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Example (3):
Solution:
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Example (4):
Solution:
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4.4 Problems:
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Factor Symbol
Type
Span length Directly proportional
l
Applied load w Directly proportional
Calculations of beam deflections will depend on the formulae provided in the cases below.
5.4 Examples:
Example (1):
For the beam shown in the figure below, calculate the deflection of the beam at the mid-
span.
Given: E 200 GPa, I 200 106 mm 4
Solution:
1m
w 5 kN/m 0.005 kN/mm, L 5 m 5000 E 200 GPa 200
1000 mm, kN/mm 2
mm5 0.005 kN/mm 5000 mm 4
5 wl 4
1.017 mm
384 EI 384 200 kN/mm 2 200106 mm 4
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Example (2):
For the beam shown in the figure below, calculate the deflection of the beam at the free
end.
Given: E 90 GPa, I 100 10 6 mm 4 E 90GPa, I 100106 mm 4
Solution:
P1 10 P2 20 l 6 m 6000 mm I 100106
kN
x 2 m 2000kNmm b 4 m
mm 4
4000 mm E 90 GPa 90
kN/mm2
P1
1
6EI 2l 3 3l 2 x x 3
10 kN
6 90 kN/mm 2
10010 6
mm 4 2 6000 mm 3
3 6000 mm
2
2000 mm 2000 mm
3
Pb 2
41.48
2 2
6EI
mm
3l 3x b
20 kN 4000 mm 6 90 3 6000 mm 3 2000 mm 4000
2
kN/mm2 100106 mm 4
47.41mm
mm
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Example (3):
For the beam shown in the figure below, calculate the deflection of the beam at point C.
Given: E 100 GPa, I 120106 mm4
Solution:
1m
w 10 kN/m 0.01kN/mm l 5 m 5000 mm E 100 GPa 100
1000 kN/mm 2
P 10 mm
x 2 m 2000 a 2 m 2000 mm I 120 106
kN mm mm 4
Pa
1
x
6EIl
l2 x2
10 kN 2000 mm 2000 mm
2
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Example (4):
For the beam shown in the figure below, calculate the deflection of the beam at the mid-
span. Given: E 95GPa, I 100106 mm4
Solution:
1m
w 1 w 2 5 kN/m 0.005
1000 kN/mm
l 6 m 6000 mmmm E 95 GPa 95 kN/mm 2
x 3 m 3000 mm a 2 m 2000 mm I 100106 mm 4
2 wa 2 l x
24EIl 4xl 2x 2 a 2
0.005 kN/mm 2000 mm 6000 mm 3000 mm 24
2
95 kN/mm 100 10
2 6
mm 4 6000 mm
4 3000 mm 6000 mm 2 3000 mm 2000 mm
2 2
2.19 mm
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5.5 Problems:
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1. Floors:
For some types of buildings having very large floor areas, many codes will allow a
reduction in the uniform live load for a floor.
The reason is that it is unlikely to that the prescribed live load will occur
simultaneously throughout the entire structure at any one time.
ASCE7-02 allows a reduction of live load on a member having an influence area
(KLL
15
L L ∘ 0.25 K (USCU) (6-2)
LL A T
Where,
L = reduced design live load per square foot or square meter of area supported by the
member, > 0.5 Lo for 1 floor, > 0.4 Lo for 2 floors or more.
Lo = unreduced design live load per square foot or square meter of area supported by the member.
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NOTE:
Case Exception
Assembly Uses:
Live loads shall not be reduced in assembly -
uses.
Element
K LL
Interior columns 4
Exterior columns without cantilever slabs 4
Edge columns with cantilever slabs 3
Corner columns with cantilever slab 2
Edge beams without cantilever slabs 2
Interior beams 2
All other members not identified, 1
including:
Edge beams with cantilever slabs
Cantilever beams
One-way slabs
Two-way slabs
Members
without
provisions for
continuous
shear transfer
normal to
their span
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Illustrating some of the elements in the table above, and referring to the plan in Figure 6-1 :
Element
Slabs Example
One-way slab S2
Two-way slab
Columns S3
Interior columns C4
Exterior
columns
C5
without
cantilever slabs
Edge columns with cantilever slabs B3
Corner
Interiorcolumns
beams with cantilever slab C2 – C5
Beams B2
Cantilever beams D1 – D2
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6.1.2 Roofs:
Ordinary flat, pitched, and curved roofs are permitted to be designed for a reduced roof live
load in accordance with equation (4-2) from ASCE-7
Lr Lo R1 R2
(6-3)
0.58 L r 0.96 SI (6-4)
Where
12 L r 20 USCU (6-5)
2 2
2
2
L r : reduced roof live load per ft (m ) of horizontal projection in pounds per ft (kN/m )
1
for AT 200 ft 2
200 ft 2 AT 600 ft (USCU)
R 1.5 0.001AT
1
0.6 for
2
AT 600 ft 2
for AT 18.58 m
for 2
18.58 m 2 AT 55.74 m (SI)
R 1 11.2 0.011AT
0.6 for
2
AT 55.74 m 2
F 4
1 for
for 4 F 12
R 1.2
2
0.6 (USCU)
0.05F
F 12
where, for a pitched roof,for
F = number of inches of rise per foot (in SI: F = 0.12 x slope,
with slope expressed in percentage points) and, for an arch or dome, F = rise-to-span ratio
multiplied by 32.
2. Tributary Areas for beams and columns:
Definition:
o Beams: The area of slab that is supported by a particular beam is termed the
beam’s tributary area.
o Columns: the area surrounding the column that is bounded by the panel
centerlines
Importance: to understand and determine the vertical loads transferred from slabs to
beams and columns
Notes:
o Tributary area for interior columns is four time (4x) the tributary area typical
corner column.
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o Tributary area for beams surrounding a “square” slab share equal portion
of the load applied to that slab.
o For rectangular slabs, the load shared by the beams in the short direction is
triangular whereas the load shared by beams in the long direction is
trapezoidal.
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1 1 2x 2 (6-6)
3
L
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x (6-7)
1 L
The following table contains some tabulated values for &
L/2x 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
𝛼 0.667 0.725 0.769 0.803 0.830 0.853 0.870 0.885 0.897 0.908 0.917
𝛽 0.5 0.544 0.582 0.615 0.642 0.667 0.688 0.706 0.722 0.737 0.75
1 1 2x 2 1 x
3L L
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1. LRFD:
Load factors are applied to the service loads, and a member is selected that will have
enough strength to resist the factored loads.
In addition, the theoretical strength of the member is reduced by the application of a
resistance factor.
The criterion that must be satisfied in the selection of a member is
In this expression, the factored load is actually the sum of all service loads to be
resisted by the member, each multiplied by its own load factor.
The factored strength is the theoretical strength multiplied by a resistance
factor. So,
Load Load factor Resistance resistance factor
The factored load is a failure load greater than the total actual service load, so the
load factors are usually greater than unity.
However, the factored strength is a reduced, usable strength, and the resistance
factor if usually less than unity.
The factored loads are the loads that bring the structure or member to its
limit.
In terms of safety, this limit state can be fracture, yielding, or buckling, and the
factored resistance is the useful strength of the member, reduced from the theoretical
value by the resistance factor.
The limit state can also be one of serviceability, such as a maximum acceptable
deflection.
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2. Load Combinations:
We have seen that
It can be written as
(6-8)
i Qi R n
Where:
i : a load factor
Q i : applied load
: resistance factor
R n : the nominal resistance or strength
R n : the design strength
The summation on the left side of the above expression is over the total number of
load effects (including, but not limited to, dead load and live load), where each load
effect can be associated with a different load factor.
This can be obtained by what is known as “Load Combinations”
Many structures will see most, if not all, the loads mentioned above sometime in
their life.
The next challenge becomes how to combine the loads reasonably.
A direct combination of all the loads at their maximum is not considered to be
probable.
For example, it would not be reasonable to expect a full live load to occur
simultaneously with a full snow load during a design level wind storm.
The design of a structural member entails the selection of a cross section that will
safely and economically resist the applied loads.
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1.4 D F 1
1.2 D F T 1.6 L H 0.5(L r or S or R ) 2
1.2D 1.6(L r or S or R ) (L or 0.5W ) 3
1.2D 1.0W 1.0L 0.5(L r or S or R )
4
1.2D 1.0E 1.0L 0.2S
5
0.9D 1.6W 1.6H
6
0.9D 1.0E 1.6H
7
Where:
D = Dead load
F = Fluid Load
T = Self straining load
L = Live load
Lr = Roof live load
H = Lateral earth pressure, ground water pressure
S = Snow load
R = Rain load
W = Wind load
E =
Earthquake
load
Note:
Wind and earthquake loads will have compression and tensile components. For tensile, use
negative value and positive value for compression loads.
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6.3.4 Examples:
Example (1):
The various axial loads for a building column have been computed according to the
applicable building code with the following results:
dead load = 850 kN, load from roof = 250kN (roof live load), live load from floor = 1100
kN, compression wind = 350 kN, tensile wind = 290 kN, compression earthquake = 260 kN,
and tensile earthquake = 300 kN.
Determine the ultimate load on the column.
Solution:
D = 850 kN, F = 0 kN, T = 0 kN, L = 1100 kN, Lr = 250 kN, H = 0 kN, S = 0 kN, R = 0
kN, W = +350 kN (Compression) and -290 kN (Tensile), E = +260 kN (Compression) and
-300 kN (Tensile). After including all zero values of the loads in the load combinations, and
expanding the equations to their permutations, the equations are reduced to:
1.4D
1.2D 1.6L 0.5L r
1.2D 1.6L r L
1.2D 1.6L r 0.5W tension
1.2D 1.6L r 0.5W compression
1.2D 1.0L
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1.4850 1190 kN
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Example (2):
For the floor plan shown in the figure (1), if D = 3.4 kN/m2 and L = 2.4 kN/m2, find the
ultimate loads on:
Figure 6-5: Floor plan for Error! Reference source not found.
Solution:
Column A4:
2
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Column B3:
2
4
2
4.57 live load reduction
4.57 2
LI > L37.2
A
m2
0.25 Apply
A 2.4 0.25
1.1kN/m
o
I 480
700.8 kN
Pu 1.2D 1.6L A I 1.23.4 1.61.1120
Column C4:
2
370.6 kN
Pu 1.2D 1.6L A I 1.2 3.4 1.6 1.31 60
4.57
4.57 2
L Lo 0.25 A 2.4 0.25 1.31kN/m
I 240
Beam B1 – C1:
AT 12 2 5 2
2 35m
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w = 35.52 kN/m2, x = 5 m
1 2 5 x 5
2
2
1 1 0.583
1 1 2x
L 12
1
0.769
Equivalent 3
uniformly Ldistributed load for bending moment:
3
12
w eq w 0.769 35.52 27.31 kN/m
Beam C2 – D2:
AT 2 12 2 5 2
2 70m
33.12 kN/m
W u 1.2D 1.6L d 1.2 3.4 1.6 1.59 5
Extra: Approximation of trapezoidal load as a uniformly distributed load
w = 33.2 kN/m2, x = 5 m
1 2 5 x 5
2
2
1 1 0.583
1 1 2x
L 12
1
0.769
Equivalent 3
uniformly Ldistributed load for bending moment:
3
12
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12 m
12 m
Example (3):
For the 2nd floor plan shown in the figure below, assuming all slabs are 10 cm thick and:
Figure 6-6: Floor plan for Error! Reference source not found.
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Solution:
Dead load calculation:
3.75kN/m
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Summary of live load values from ASCE-7:
Occupancy Live load (kN/m2)
Office 2.40
Computer Lab 4.79
Classroom 1.92
Corridor above first floor 3.83
Library (reading room) 2.87
Dining room 4.79
Column A1:
AT 4 3 12
m2
Column A 1 is a corner column without cantilever slab KLL = 1
A K A 112 12 m 2
I LL T
AI <37.2 m2 No reduction
100 kN
Pu 1.2D 1.6L A I 1.2 3.75 1.6 2.4 12
Column B4:
2
104.10 kN
Pu Lib 1.2D 1.6L AI Lib 1.23.75 1.62.6112
Note: No reduction is allowed for dining room love load (ASCE-7)
2
145.97 kN
Pu Din 1.2D 1.6L A I Din 1.23.75 1.64.7912
Column C2:
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AT Comp AT Class 3 4 12 m
2
AT Corr 1 6 6 m
2
A I Corr 4 6 24 m
2
4.57 4.57
L Class Lo
A I 1.92 0.25 48 1.75kN/m
2
0.25
2
137.7 kN
Pu Comp 1.2D 1.6L A I Comp 1.23.75
87.6 kN
P
1.6 4.36
u Class 1.2D
121.6L
AI Class 1.23.75 1.61.7512
63.77 kN
Pu Corr 1.2D 1.6L A I Corr 1.2 3.75 1.6 3.83 6
Pu Pu Comp Pu Class Pu Corr 137.7 87.6 63.77 289 kN
Beam A3 – A4:
AT 2 8 3 2
2 15m
AT Corr 1 6 6 m
2
A
w B
x
2
L
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w = 27.28 kN/m2, x = 3 m
1 1 2x 2 11 2 3 x 3
2
1 1 0.625
3 L 0.8125 L 8
3
Equivalent uniformly 8 distributed load for bending moment:
w eq w 0.8125 27.28 22.17 kN/m
8m 8m
Beam C1 – C2:
2
AT Comp AT Class 3
2
8 2 15m
A
w B
x
2
L
w = 59.21 kN/m2, x = 3 m
1 1 2x 2 11 2 3 x 3
2
1 1 0.625
3 L 0.8125 L 8
3
Equivalent uniformly 8 distributed load for bending moment:
w eq w 0.8125 59.21 48.11kN/m
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8m 8m
Beam B3 – C3:
1
AT Din 2 6 3 9
m2 2
x
2
L
w = 36.49 kN/m2 (Dining room load only), x
= 3m
1 1 2x 2 11 2 3 x 3
2
1 1 0.625
3 L 0.8125 L 8
3
Equivalent uniformly 8 distributed load for bending moment:
w eq w 0.8125 36.49 29.65 kN/m
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+
6m 6m
6m 6m
=
weq = kN/m weq = kN/m
6m 6m
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6.4 Problems:
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7.6 SI Prefixes:
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