CHAPTER - THREE

SOLIDS AND HAZARDOUS WASTES

Tesfay T. Nov. 2023

 Solid Wastes
 Solid waste: Any material that is thrown away or
discarded as useless and unwanted.
 Solid wastes are the wastes arising from human activities
which are in a solid form(non soluble).
 However, waste materials can become a resource for
industrial production or energy generation, if
managed properly.
 Sources of Solid Wastes
The following are major sources of solid waste:
1. Municipal solid waste
2. Industrial solid waste
3. Commercial solid waste
4. Institutional solid waste
5. Construction and demolition solid waste
6. Medical solid waste
7. Agricultural solid waste
8. Treatment Plant Sites
 Municipal Solid Waste(MSW)
 Municipal Solid Waste is refers to solid wastes from
houses, streets and public places, shops, offices, and
hospitals.
 Domestic waste or residential waste, is generated
within a community from several sources,
 Besides originates from residential, commercial and
institutional.
 Composition of municipal solid waste

• The types of municipal solid waste are:

• food wastes
• Paper and cardboard
• Plastics
• Textiles
• Leather
• yard wastes
• wood
• glass
• metals
• ashes
• special wastes
Cont….
 Cont….
• The Factors that influence the quantity of municipal
wastes generated include:
Population
Educational level, attitudes and behaviors of the
people.
Family's income level.
Socio-economic conditions of cites
Availability of resources
Attitude of waste generators and/or manufacturers
Availability and enforcement of laws to regulate
waste
Recycling and resource recovery
Level of technological advancement
 1.

Types of waste according to properties

1. Bio-degradable
• Biodegradable waste can be degraded (broken
down) by other living organisms. (paper, wood,
fruits and others agricultural wastes).
2. Non-biodegradable
• Waste that cannot be broken down by other living
organisms. (plastics, bottles, old machines, cans,
containers and others)
• Extremely slow or no decomposition will be takes
place.
 Characteristics of solid waste
 The characteristics is essential for the proper
understanding of the behavior of waste, as it moves
through the waste management system.
 The characteristics of solid waste can be divided in to
three:
• Physical characteristics
• Chemical characteristics and
• Biological characteristics
 Physical characteristics of solid waste
1. Specific weight(density)
2. Moisture content
3. Particle size and size distribution
4. Field Capacity (FC)
5. Permeability of Compacted Waste
6. Porosity
7. Compressibility
 1. Specific weight(density)
 Is defined as the weight of solid material per unit
volume ( kg/m3).
 Is a critical factor in the design of sanitary landfills,
storage, types of collection and transport vehicles.
 Also used to assess volume of transportation vehicle and
size of the disposal facility.
 It varies with geographic location, season, length of time
in storage.
Typical Specific Weight (density) Values
for un compacted waste
 2. Moisture content
 Moisture content is defined as the ratio of the weight of
water (wet weight – dry weight) to the total weight of the
wet waste.
 Dry weight is the weight of sample after drying @ 105 0C
 Moisture increases the weight of solid wastes and thereby,
the cost of collection and transport.
 Moisture content is a critical determinant in the economic
feasibility of waste treatment by incineration (burning)
because wet waste consumes energy for evaporation of
water and in raising the temperature of water vapor.
 In the main, solid wastes should be protected from rainfall
or other extraneous water.
Typical Moisture Content Values
 Cont.….
• Moisture content percentage, using the formula
given below:
•

• Where M = moisture content, %

W= initial weight of sample as delivered, kg
D=weight of sample after drying at 105OC, kg
Example: Estimate the overall all moisture content of
solid waste
• The following are the particular of solid waste
generated from residential area. Assume the sample weight
of 100kg.
a. Calculate dry mass/weight for each component
b. Estimate the overall all moisture content of solid waste.
Component Percent by Moisture content
mass (%) (%)
Paper 50 6
Glass 20 2
Food 20 70
Yard waste 10 60
 3. Particle size and size distribution
 The size and distribution of the components of
wastes are important for the recovery of materials.
 Particle size are important especially by mechanical
means are used, such as trommel screens, shredding
and magnetic separators.
 The smaller particles allow higher packing density
which decrease water movement, bacterial
movement and the bacterial access to substrate.
 4. Field Capacity (FC)
 The total amount of moisture that can be retained in a waste
sample water in excess of the FC will be released as leachate.
 It is used to determine the formation of leachate in landfills.
 Leachate comprises liquids seeping from solid waste as it
degrades and decomposes.
 It generally contains decomposed waste, water and
microorganisms.
5. Permeability of Compacted Waste
 The permeability (hydraulic conductivity) of compacted solid
waste is an important physical property because it governs the
movement of liquids & gases in a landfill.
 Permeability depends on:
• Pore size distribution • Surface area • Porosity
6. Porosity
 It represents the amount of voids per unit overall volume of
solid.
7. Compressibility
 Degree of physical changes of solids waste when subjected to
pressure.
 Chemical Characteristics of solid waste
 Chemical properties of MSW are very important in
evaluating the alternative processing and recovery
options.
 Used primarily for combustion and waste to energy.
 Some important chemical properties measured for solid
waste are:
1. Proximate analysis
2. Fusing point of ash
3. Ultimate analysis
 Cont.….
1. Proximate analysis:
 Proximate analysis of waste aims to determine
moisture, volatile matter, ash and fixed carbon. The
fractions of interest are:
1. Moisture content which adds weight to the waste without
increasing its heating value, and the evaporation of water
reduces the heat released from the fuel.
2. Ash which adds weight without generating any heat
during combustion.
3. Volatile matter: That portion of the waste that is
converted to gases before and during combustion
4. Fixed carbon which represents the carbon remaining on
the surface grates as charcoal.
Typical Proximate analysis values
 Cont.….
2. Fusing point of ash: is defined as that temperature at
which the ash resulting from the burning of waste will form
a solid (clinker) by fusion and agglomeration
• Typical fusion temperature for the formation of clinker
from solid waste ranges from 1100 to 1200 oc.
 Cont…
3. Ultimate analysis:
It is the Molecular composition
The ultimate analysis of a waste component
typically involves the determination of the percent
of C (carbon), H (hydrogen) O (oxygen), N
(nitrogen), S (sulfur) and ash.
The results of the ultimate analysis are used to
characterize the chemical composition of the
organic matter in municipal solid waste.
 Cont.….
• Typical data on ultimate analysis of the combustible
components in municipal solid waste Percent by
weight (dry basis)
 Solid Wastes Management
 It is the discipline associated with the control of generation,
storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing and disposal
of solid waste.
 It is one among the basic essential services provided by
municipal authorities in the country to keep urban centers clean.
 Objective of solid waste management are:
 Protect the health of the environment
 Promote environmental quality and sustainability
 Support economic productivity and employment generation
 Reduce the quantity of solid waste disposed off on land by
recovery of materials and energy.
 Functional elements of SWM
 The activities associated with the management of solid
wastes from the point of generation to the final disposal
point.
Waste Generation

Waste handling, separation,

storage and processing
at the source

Collection

Transfer and Separation and

Transport processing(recovery) and
transformation of solid waste
Disposal
 Cont.…..
1. Waste generation
 The activities in which materials are identified as no
longer useful and gathered together for disposal.
2. Waste handling and separation, storage and
processing at source
 Activities related to management of waste until they
are put in storage containers for collection.
 Handling:-Movement of loaded containers from
generation point to point of collection.
 Separation
 This is grouping the waste
into various categories
depending on the nature
of SW e.g.
• Organics
• Paper
• Bottles
• Cans etc.
 Important step in
recovering materials for
recycling and reuse, and
storage at source.
 Cont.….
Storage
 It requires facilities for temporarily storing of refuse on
the premises.
 Individual house holder or business man has
responsibility for onsite storage of solid waste .
 On site storage important for the following reasons:
 Public health concerns
 Aesthetic considerations (good)

Processing at source
 Involves activities such as compacting (Volume
reduction), size reduction and yard Composting .
 3. Collection
 This is the removal of refuse from collection points to
final disposal site.
 It includes:
 Gathering or picking up of solid waste from the
various sources.
 Taking the collected wastes to the location where it
is emptied.
 Unloading of the collection vehicle.
 Collection cost has been estimated to represent about 50
to 80% of the total cost of solid waste management
depending on the type of disposal facility used .
 Cont.…..
 It is the most expensive part of solid waste
management as compared with other operation
and management procedures, because it
demands:
 Special vehicles
 Experienced people to manage
 More manpower
 More funds for fuel, salary, maintenance.
Conti….
 Types of Collection system

• According to their mode of operation they classify in to two

categories.
1. Stationary container system
2. Hauled container system
1. Stationary container system (SCS)
• The waste is unloaded into a bigger truck. A large container is an
integral part of the truck.
• Container remains at site (residential and commercial) where the
waste is generated.
• When fully loaded from multiple waste containers, the truck travels to
and from the landfill as opposed to the waste container.
• Waste is emptied and loaded by manually or mechanically.
Stationary container System (SCS)
 Estimation of Number of travels per day for SCS
• Time required for stationary the container, (h/trip)

 Tscs = Time required for stationary the container, hr/trip

 Pscs = pickup time (time required to load the collection vehicle),
hr ,
 s = on-site time (time required to unload the vehicle), hr,
 h= haul time, hr
 Ct = number of container emptied per trip, container/ trip
 np= number of container pick up location,
 Uc= Average unloading time per container for SCS, hr/container.
 dbc= average time spent driving b/n containers location, hr
 Cont..
• Number of containers (Ct)

• Vc= average container size, yd3/trip

• =weighted average container utilization factor
 Cont..

Where

• t1 =time to drive from garage to first container location,

hr
• t2= time to drive from the last container to the garage, hr

• Vd= average daily quantity of waste collected, yd 3/d

• Vv= volume of collection vehicle(yd 3/trip) ,
• r= is compaction ratio
• W = off-route factor (the nonproductive time), (0.1 - 0.4)
typically 0.15
 2. Hauled Container System (HCS)
 Hauled method is an empty storage container (known
as a drop-off box) is hauled to the storage site to
replace the container that is full of waste.
 Container is moved to the disposal site.
 It is suitable for high density waste like construction
and demolition, and sludge with high generation rate.
 High generation rates (like open markets)
Hauled container System (HCS)
Estimation of Number of travels per day for HCS
 Time required for hauling the container, (h/trip)

Where
• Thcs = Time required for hauling the container, hr
• Phcs = pickup time, hr
• s = on-site time, hr
• h= haul time, hr
• Pc = time required to pick up loaded container, hr
• Uc= time required to unload empty container, hr
• dbc= time required to drive between container locations, hr
 Cont…
 Number of travel per day (Nd)

Nd
Where
• H = length of workday, h/d
• W = off-route factor (0.1 - 0.4) typically 0.15
• t1 =time to drive from garage to first container location, hr
• t2= time to drive from the last container to the garage, hr
• Vd= average daily quantity of waste collected, yd3/d
• c = average container size, yd3/trip
• f = weighted average container utilization factor
 Example1

 Quantity of solid wastes = 300 yd3/ d

 Container utilization factor = 0.67
 Container size = 8 yd3/trip
 Collection vehicle capacity = 30yd3/trip
 Collection vehicle compaction ratio(r) = 2
 Determine number containers emptied/trip ) & number
of trips/d (nd)?
 Answer

• To determine the number of containers emptied per trip (ct) and the
number of trips per day (Nd), we can use the given information and
calculate accordingly.
• Given:
– Quantity of solid wastes: 300 yd3/day
– Container utilization factor: 0.67
– Container size: 8 yd3/trip
– Collection vehicle capacity: 30 yd3/trip
– Collection vehicle compaction ratio (r): 2
• First, let's calculate the number of containers emptied per trip (Ct):
 Answer, cont…

• Next, let's calculate the number of trips per

day (Nd):

In summary:
– Number of containers emptied per trip (Ct) ≈ 11
containers
– Number of trips per day (Nd) = 5 trips/day
 Example 2
• Solid waste from a new industrial park is to be collected in large
containers (drop boxes), some of which will be used in
conjunction with stationary compactors. Based on traffic studies
at similar parks, it is estimated that the average time to drive from
the garage to the first container location (tl) and from the last
container location (t2) to the garage each day will be 15 and 20
min, respectively. If the average time required to drive between
containers is 6min and the one-way distance to the disposal site is
25km (speed limit: 88km/h). Determine the number of containers
that can be emptied per day, based on an 8-h workday.
• Assume the off-route factor, W = 0.15, S=0.133h/trip,
Uc+Pc=0.4h/tp, h=0.566h/tr
 Solution
1. Determine pick up time per trip

2. Determine the time per trip

3. Determine the No. trips per day

4. Determine the actual length of the work day

= 7.74h/day
 4. Separation, Processing and Transformation of solid waste

Separation and Processing

 Occurs primarily in locations away from the source of
waste generation.
 Commonly used unit operations for separation and
processing of solid waste are:
1. Size Reduction
2. Screening
3. Density separation (air classification)
4. Magnetic separation
5. Densification (compaction)
 Size reduction/Shredding
 Collected waste materials are mechanically reduced
in size using shredders, glass crushers, wood
grinders, etc.
 Screening
 It is used to separate mixtures of materials of different
sizes into two or more size fractions by means of one
or more screening surfaces e.g. vibrating screens,
rotary screens, disc screens, etc.
 Cont.…..
 The trommel screen is the most widely used screen in Separation
and Processing.
 Trommel speed is often designed as some fraction of the critical
speed, defined as that rotational speed at which the materials will
just begin centrifuging, and calculated as:

where
= critical speed (rotation/s),
g = gravitational acceleration (cm/s2)
r = radius of drum (cm)
 Density separation (Air classification)
 It is used to separate light
materials such as paper &
plastics from heavier
materials such as ferrous
metals, based on weight
differences of materials in
air stream.
 Magnetic Separation
 Ferrous metals are separated from other waste
materials by utilizing their magnetic properties .
 Densification (Compaction)
 It increases the density of waste materials so that they
can be stored and transported more efficiently and as a
means of preparing densified refuse-derived fuels
(DRDF) (balers, can crushers, etc.)
 Transformation
 Transformation processes are used to reduce the
volume and weight of the waste requiring disposal and
to recover conversion products and energy.
Thermal conversion - Combustion
 The most commonly used chemical transformation process is
combustion, which can be used to reduce the original volume of
the combustible fraction of MSW by 85 to 95%.
 In addition, the recovery of energy in the form of heat is another
attractive feature of the combustion process.
 Air pollution control is a major concern in implementation
Thermal conversion - Combustion
 Biological conversion - Composting
 If these organic materials are subjected to anaerobic/ aerobic
microbial decomposition, the end product is a humus
material known as compost.
 When added to soil, compost lightens heavy soils, improve
texture of light soil and increase water retention capacity
(totally increase the productivity of soil).
 5.Transfer & Transport
 Functional element of transfer and transport refers to the
means, facilities used to effect the transfer of wastes
from one location to another, usually more distant
location.
 Contents of relatively small collection vehicles are
transferred to larger vehicles that are used to transport
the waste over extended distances either to MRFs or to
disposal sites.
 Means of Transport
 Motor vehicles, railroads and ocean-going vessels
are the principle means used to transport solid
wastes.
 Vehicles used for transport should satisfy the
following requirements:
• Wastes must be transported at minimum cost.
• Wastes must be covered during hauling operation
• Vehicles must be designed for highway traffic.
• Vehicles capacity must be such that the allowable
weight limits are not exceeded.
• Methods used for unloading must be simple and
dependable.
 6. Disposal
 There are many methods available to dispose
off waste. some of the most commonly used
methods:
1. Incineration
2. Landfill
3. Recycling
 1. Incineration
 A controlled process of burning mixed solid wastes at
extremely high temperature(900 c-1000 oc) to reduce its
volume and, in some cases, to generate electricity.
 Reduce volume by 90% and weight by 75%. The
remaining ash disposed of at landfill
 Butter than open burning but can create new chemical
compounds and emit toxic chemicals from the stacks.
 The heat generated by incineration is used to generate
electric power.
Cont...
 Advantages and Disadvantages of incineration
Advantages
 Minimum land is needed compared to other disposal methods.
 The weight of the waste is reduced to 75% of the initial value.
 no risk of polluting local streams and ground waters as in
landfills.
 Incineration plants can be located close to residential areas.
 Heat generated by incineration is used used to generate power.
Disadvantages
 Expensive
 Required skilled labor
 The chemicals that would be released into the air could be
strong pollutants and may destroy ozone layer (major
disadvantage).
 Gases contain pollutants should be treated before emission.
 2. Sanitary Landfill
 It is the most common and economical method of
solid waste disposal.
 In a sanitary landfill, waste is spread out in thin
layers, compacted and covered with clay or plastic
foam.
 In the modern landfills the bottom is covered with an
impermeable liner, usually several layers of clay,
thick plastic and sand.
 The liner protects the ground water from being
contaminated due to percolation of leachate.
 Leachate from bottom is pumped and sent for
treatment.
Sanitary landfill
 Sanitary Landfills Site Selection
 Should be above the water table, to minimize interaction with
groundwater.
 Preferably located in clay or silt.
 Do not want to place in a rock quarry, as water can leech through
the cracks inherent in rocks into a water fracture system.
 Do not want to locate in sand or gravel pits, as these have high
leeching.
 Do not want to locate in a flood plain. Most garbage tends to be
less dense than water, so if the area of the landfill floods, the
garbage will float to the top and wash away downstream.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of landfill
ADVANTAGES
 Landfill site is a cheap waste disposal option for the
local council.
 Jobs will be created for local people.
 Lots of different types of waste can be disposed of by
landfill in comparison to other waste disposal methods.
 The gases given off by the landfill site could be collected
and used for generating power.
 Drawbacks of landfills
 Finding site is difficult
 Dangerous gases are given off from landfill sites
that cause local air pollution and contribute to
global warming.
 Leachate (piking of some particles as water is
filtered through the waste) will likely escape even
from well lined landfills.
 Local streams could become polluted with toxins
seeping from the landfill site
 Landfill capacity
• Daily SW generation (weight) per day
= P*q
• Volume of landfill
V= Daily SW/Density
V=AH
Where
• P= population
• q= quantity of solid waste generation
• V = volume of landfill
• H= depth of the land fill
 Example on Estimation of required landfill area
Estimate the required landfill area for a community
with population 3100. Assume that the ff conditions
apply
– SW generation =6.4
– Compacted specific weight of SW in land fill=
– Average depth of compacted SW=20m
Required
I. Daily SW generation tone per day
II. Volume required per day
III. Area required per year
 Example 2
Determine the area required for a new landfill site
with a projected life of 30 years for a population of
250,000 generating 2.02 kg · (capita)−1 · day−1. The
density of the compacted waste is 470 kg · m3. The
height of the landfill cannot exceed 15 m. If liner
thickness is 1m, hydraulic conductivity is the head
of water is 0.6 m. Determine the volumetric flow
rate of leachate through a compacted clay liner
 Conti..
Solution.
the volume of landfill necessary can be calculated as

Therefore, over 30 years, the volume required is

If we have a 15-m height constraint, then we need an

area of

Determine the Darcy velocity

To determine the flow, use continuity equation, Q=Av

 3. Recycling
 Processing to change waste materials into new products
to prevent wastage of potentially use full materials.
 Recycling not only reduces waste;
 Recycling reduces both air and water pollution

 Recycling can also create jobs and opportunities for

small business, and reduce the dependence on foreign

mineral imports.
 Recycling Benefits
 Reduces energy consumption to manufacture new
product.
 Crushed glass reduces energy required to manufacture
new glass by 50%.
 Resource Conservation and minimize environmental
pollution.
 Saves money, raw materials, and land.
 Reduces pressure on disposal systems.
 Lowers demand for raw resources.
 Encourages individual responsibility.
 Hazardous wastes
 Wastes that poses a potential danger immediately or over a period
of time to human health and environment which require special
management.
 A waste is classified as hazardous waste if it exhibits any of the
following characteristics:
 Ignitability: Wastes that can create fire under certain
condition, are spontaneously combustible, or have a flash point
less than 60 °C (140 °F).
 Corrosives: Wastes that are acidic or alkaline and are capable
of corroding or dissolving metal, such as storage tanks, flesh,
or other materials.
 Cont.……
 Reactivity: Reactive wastes are unstable under "normal"
conditions. They can cause explosions, generate toxic fumes,
gases, or vapors.
 Toxicity: substances that can cause injury or death when
inhaled(breath in), eaten, swallowed or absorbed.
 Types of hazardous wastes
There are many types of hazardous wastes. Two are
worst because they persist for a long time with out
breaking down.
1. Heavy metal
Mercury, lead, chromium, arsenic, cadmium, tin,
copper( from industry, mining, consumer products)
2. Organic compound
Petroleum products, rubber, preservatives, solvent,
pesticides.
 Waste Management Hierarchy
 For hazardous waste the hierarchy is as follows:
Eliminate the production of hazardous waste
Where elimination is not possible apply methods to
reduce the quantity or hazard involved
Minimize amount of waste for disposal by recycling,
reuse and/or recovery.
Treatment of hazardous waste to stabilize,
immobilize, or destroy hazardous properties.
Dispose of residues with a minimum of
environmental impact.
Appropriately isolate and store hazardous waste
 Hazardous waste disposal method
1. Landfills: special landfills with stricter regulations are
used for hazardous wastes.
2. Surface impoundments: ponds lined with plastic and
clay. Water evaporates from the hazardous waste, leaving
hazardous solids residue that can be buried.
3. Deep-well injection: hazardous wastes are pumped
deep under ground into porous and stable rock formations,
away from aquifers.
Cont.…