ADVANCED NETWORK

PRINCIPLES AND PROTOCOLS

UNIT - I
Syllabus
UNIT – I NETWORK DESIGN
Advanced multiplexing – Code Division Multiplexing, DWDM and OFDM –
Shared media networks – Switched networks – End to end semantics –
Connectionless, Connection oriented, Wireless Scenarios –Applications, Quality
of Service – End to end level and network level solutions. LAN cabling
topologies – Ethernet Switches, Routers, Firewalls and L3 switches – Remote
Access Technologies and Devices – Modems and DSLs – SLIP and PPP – Core
networks, and distribution networks.
Book for UNIT - I
 ADVANCED
MULTIPLEXING
The Concept of Multiplexing
◦ In telecommunications and computer networks, multiplexing is a method by which multiple analog or
digital signals are combined into one signal over a shared medium. (or)
◦ Multiplexing is a popular networking technique that integrates multiple analog and digital signals
into a signal transmitted over a shared medium.
◦ Multiplexers and de-multiplexers are used to convert multiple signals into one signal. This term
is also known as muxing.
Ex:
◦ Phone calls are a good example of multiplexing in telecommunications.
◦ That is, more than one phone call is transmitted over a single medium.
The Concept of Multiplexing
◦ Multiplexing to refer to the combination of information streams from multiple sources for transmission
over a shared medium
◦ Multiplexor is a mechanism that implements the concept
◦ Demultiplexing to refer to the separation of a combination back into separate information streams
◦ Demultiplexor to refer to a mechanism that implements the concept
◦ Figure illustrates the concept
◦ each sender communicates with a single receiver
◦ all pairs share a single transmission medium
◦ multiplexor combines information from the senders for transmission in such a way that the demultiplexor can
separate the information for receiver
Multiplexing in networks
The Basic Types of Multiplexing
⚫ There are four basic approaches to multiplexing that each have a set
of variations and implementations
⚫ Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
⚫ Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
⚫ Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
⚫ Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
⚫ TDM and FDM are widely used
⚫ WDM is a form of FDM used for optical fiber
⚫ CDM is a mathematical approach used in cell phone
mechanisms
 Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
Code-division multiple access is a channel access method used by various radio communication
technologies.
CDMA is an example of multiple access, where several transmitters can send information
simultaneously over a single communication channel.
1.CDM used in parts of the cellular telephone system and for some satellite communication
⚫ The specific version of CDM used in cell phones is known as Code Division
Multi-Access (CDMA)
2.CDM does not rely on physical properties
⚫ such as frequency or time
3.CDM relies on an interesting mathematical idea
⚫ values from orthogonal vector spaces can be combined and separated without interference
4.Each sender is assigned a unique binary code Ci
⚫ that is known as a chip sequence
⚫ chip sequences are selected to be orthogonal vectors
⚫ (i.e., the dot product of any two chip sequences is zero)
 Code Division Multiplexing
5. At any point in time, each sender has a value to transmit, Vi

⚫The senders each multiply Ci x Vi and transmit the results

6.The senders transmit at the same time
⚫ and the values are added together

7.To extract value Vi, a receiver multiplies the sum by Ci

8.Consider an example
◦ to keep the example easy to understand, use a chip sequence that is only
two bits long and data values that are four bits long
◦ think of the chip sequence as a vector
9.Figure 1 lists the values
Code Division Multiplexing
⚫ The first step consists of converting the binary values into vectors
that use -1 to represent 0:
Code Division Multiplexing
⚫ A receiver treats the sequence as a vector
⚫ computes the product of the vector and the chip sequence

⚫ treats the result as a sequence, and converts the result to binary by interpreting positive values
as binary 1 and negative values as 0
⚫ Thus, receiver number 1 computes:

⚫ Interpreting the result as a sequence produces: (2 -2 2 -2)

⚫ which becomes the binary value: (1 0 1 0)
⚫ note that 1010 is the correct value of V1
⚫ receiver 2 will extract V2 from the same transmission

◦ Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method utilized

by various radio communication technologies.
Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing(DWDM)
◦ Dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) is a fiber-optic transmission technique that employs
light wavelengths to transmit data parallel-by-bit or serial-by-character.

Limitations of Wavelength Division Multiplexing

 Inefficient usage of full capacity of the optical fiber

 Capability of carrying signals efficiently over short distances only
 Improvements in optical fibers and narrowband lasers
 Birth of Dense WDM (DWDM)
Evolution of DWDM
How is DWDM better?
◦O-E-O required
◦Protocol & Bit Rate independence
◦Increased overall capacity at much lower cost

◦ Current fiber plant investment can be optimized by a factor of at least 32

◦Transparency
◦ Physical layer architecture supports both TDM and data formats such as
ATM, Gigabit Ethernet, etc.
◦Scalability
◦ Utilize abundance of dark fibers in metropolitan areas and
◦ enterprise networks
Capacity Expansion
 Basic Components & Operation
Transmitting Side
 Lasers with precise stable wavelengths
 Optical Multiplexers

On the Link
 Optical fiber
 Optical amplifiers

Receiving Side
 Photo detectors
 Optical Demultiplexers
17
Optical add/drop multiplexers
 Optical Amplifier
Eliminates O-E-O conversions
More effective than electronic repeaters
Isolator prevents reflection
Light at 980nm or 1480nm is injected via the
pump laser
Gains ~ 30dB; Output Power ~ 17dB

18
Dense WDM
 Dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) refers originally to optical signals
multiplexed within the 1550 nm band.
 The capabilities (and cost) of Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifiers (EDFAs), which are
effective for wavelengths between approximately 1525–1565 nm or 1570–1610nm.
 EDFAs were originally developed to replace SONET/SDH optical-
◦ electrical-optical (OEO) regenerators.
 EDFAs can amplify any optical signal in their operating range, regardless of the modulated bit
rate.
 EDFA has enough pump energy available to it, it can amplify as many optical signals as
can be multiplexed into its amplification band.
 EDFAs therefore allow a single-channel optical link to be upgraded in bit rate by replacing
only equipment at the ends of the link.
Dense WDM
 Dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) is a technology that puts data from different
sources together on an optical fiber, with each signal carried at the same time on its own separate
light wavelength.
 Using DWDM, up to 80 (and theoretically more) separate wavelengths or channels of data can be
multiplexed into a light stream transmitted on a single optical fiber.
◦A basic DWDM system contains several main components:

1. A DWDM terminal multiplexer.

2. An intermediate line repeater
3. An intermediate optical terminal, or optical add-drop multiplexer
4. A DWDM terminal demultiplexer.
5. Optical Supervisory Channel (OSC).
Dense WDM
◦1. A DWDM terminal multiplexer:
 The terminal multiplexer contains a wavelength-converting transponder for each data signal, an
optical multiplexer and an optical amplifier (EDFA).
 Each wavelength-converting transponder receives an optical data signal from the client-layer, such as
synchronous optical networking [SONET /SDH] or another type of data signal, converts this
signal into the electrical domain and re-transmits the signal at a specific wavelength using a 1,550 nm
band laser.
 These data signals are then combined together into a multi-wavelength optical signal using an optical
multiplexer, for transmission over a single fiber.
 The terminal multiplexer may or may not also include a local transmit EDFA for power amplification of
the multi-wavelength optical signal.
 In the mid-1990s DWDM systems contained 4 or 8 wavelength-converting transponders.
 Commercial systems capable of carrying 128 signals were available.
Dense WDM
◦2.An intermediate line repeater
 This repeater is placed approximately every 80–100 km to compensate for the loss of optical
power as the signal travels along the fiber.
 The "multi-wavelength optical signal" is amplified by an EDFA, which usually consists
of several amplifier stages.
◦3.An intermediate optical terminal, or optical add-drop multiplexer
 This is a remote amplification site that amplifies the multi-wavelength
◦ signal that may have traversed up to 140 km or more.
 Optical diagnostics and telemetry are often extracted or inserted at such a site, to allow for
localization of any fiber breaks or signal impairments.
 Several signals out of the multi-wavelength optical signal may be removed and dropped
locally.
Dense WDM
◦4.A DWDM terminal demultiplexer
 At the remote site, the terminal de-multiplexer consisting of an optical de-multiplexer.
 One or more wavelength-converting transponders separates the multi- wavelength optical
signal back into individual data signals and outputs them on separate fibers for client-layer
systems.
 This de-multiplexing was performed entirely passively
 De-multiplexed signals are usually sent to O/E/O output transponders.
 The output transponder has been integrated into that of input transponder.
 Most commercial systems support bi-directional interfaces on both internal side and external
side. Transponders may also perform forward error correction (FEC) via digital
wrapper technology.
Dense WDM
◦5. Optical Supervisory Channel (OSC).
 This is data channel which uses an additional wavelength
◦ usually outside the EDFA amplification band.
 The OSC carries information about the multi-wavelength optical signal as well as
remote conditions at the optical terminal or EDFA site.
 It is also normally used for remote software upgrades and User Network
Management information.
 It is the multi-wavelength analogue to SONET's DCC.
 The OSC should utilize an OC-3 signal structure have opted to use 100 megabit
Ethernet
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
is a method of digital signal modulation in which a
single data stream is split across several separate
narrowband channels at different frequencies to reduce
interference and crosstalk.
System bandwidth is divided into a set of parallel
overlapping, yet orthogonal subbands independent to
each other
 Data is first split into independent streams, which
modulate different sub-carriers
Then are multiplexed to create OFDM signal
OFDM is a special case of FDM
Significantly improves spectral efficiency
Avoid the need for steep band pass filters
Avoids the need of a bank of oscillators, since can be
implanted digitally
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
OFDM is a technique, method or scheme for digital
multi-carrier modulation using many closely spaced
subcarriers - a previously modulated signal
modulated into another signal of higher frequency
and bandwidth.
Each of these subcarriers contains numbers of
parallel data streams or channels and is modulated
conventionally at a low symbol rate. These are
groups of bits of data related to gross bit rate, which
is expressed in bits/second.
This term is also known as coded OFDM (COFDM)
and Discrete MultiTone modulation (DMT), used
for both wireless and physical communication
mediums.
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
The term "orthogonal” is actually an adjective
describing two things acting independently or in an
uncorrelated manner.
 Any two signals of an OFDM-based product
operating without dependence on one another.
OFDM is used for wideband digital communication,
which is commonly used for digital television and
audio broadcasting (radio) as well as broadband
Internet access and wireless networking.
OFDM is very similar to FDM (frequency division
multiplexing) but with technology purposely
emphasizing the minimization of crosstalk or signal
interference from other nearby signal carrying
communication mediums.
 OFDM uses many narrow band signals as opposed to
a signal modulated at a high symbol rate and a large
bandwidth.
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing (OFDM)
◦ADVANTAGES
 Permits densely packed & overlapping sub-carriers
 Offers spectrally efficient transmission scheme
 Can be digitally implemented using, fast & efficient signal processing
 Permits flexible use of spectrum
 Supports different modulation schemes based on channel conditions
 Almost completely avoids the need for an equalizer
SHARED MEDIA
NETWORKS
Shared Media Networks
 A local area network (LAN) that shares its total
available bandwidth with all transmitting stations.

 Ethernet is the primary example, although Token

Ring and FDDI networks were earlier examples.

 In the past, when shared media LANs ran out of

capacity to serve their users effectively, they were
upgraded by replacing the network hubs with
switches.
 Shared Media networks
◦ Need arbitration to decide who gets to talk
◦ Arbitration can be centralized or distributed
◦ Centralized not used much for networks
◦ Special arbiter device (or must elect arbiter)
◦ Good performance if arbiter far away? Nah .
◦ Distributed arbitration
◦ Check if media already used (carrier sensing)
◦ If media not used now, start sending Check if another also
sending (collision detection)
◦ If collision, wait for a while and retry
◦ “For a while” is random (otherwise collisions repeat forever)
◦ Exponential back -off to avoid wasting bandwidth on
collisions
 Switched Networks
 A fully switched network is a computer network
which uses only network switches rather than
Ethernet hubs on Ethernet networks.
 The switches allow for a dedicated connection to
each workstation.
 A switch allows for many conversations to occur
simultaneously.
 Before switches existed data could only be
transmitted in one direction at a time, this was called
half-duplex.
 By using a switch the network is able to maintain
full-duplex Ethernet and makes it collision free.
 This means that data can now be
transmitted in both directions at the same time.
 Fully switched networks employ either twisted-pair
or fiber-optic cabling, both of which use separate
conductors for sending and receiving data.
 Switched networks
In this type of environment, Ethernet nodes can forgo the collision detection process and transmit at
will, since they are the only potential devices that can access the medium.
 This means that a fully switched network is a collision-free environment.
 The core function of a switch is to allow each workstation to communicate only with the switch instead of
with each other.
 This means that data can be sent from workstation to switch and from
switch to workstation simultaneously.
 The core purpose of a switch is to decongest network flow to the workstations so that the connections can
transmit more effectively receiving transmissions that were only specific to their network address.
Example:
If your network speed is 5 Mbit/s, then each workstation is
able to simultaneously transfer data at 5 Mbit/s.
 End-to-end semantics – Connection oriented and
connectionless protocol
◦ Connection-Oriented Protocol
◦ In a connection-oriented protocol, a logical connection
should first be established between the two nodes.
◦ After all frames that are somehow related to each other
are transmitted, the logical connection is terminated.
◦ In this type of communication, the frames are
numbered and sent in order.
◦ If they are not received in order, the receiver needs to
wait until all frames belonging to the same set are
received and then deliver them in order to the network
layer.
◦ Connection-oriented protocols are rare in wired LANs,
but we can see them in some point-to-point protocols,
some wireless LANs, and some WANs.
 End-to-end semantics – Connection oriented and connectionless protocol

◦ Connectionless Protocol
◦ In a connectionless protocol, frames are sent from one
node to the next without any relationship between the
frames.
◦ Each frame is independent.
◦ The term connectionless here does not mean that there is
no physical connection (transmission medium) between
the nodes.
◦ It means that there is no connection between frames.
◦ The frames are not numbered and there is no sense of
 It uses packet switching for transmission of data.
ordering.
 The Internet Protocol (IP), and the User Datagram
◦ Most of the data-link protocols for LANs are
Protocol (UDP) provides connection-less service.
connectionless protocols.
◦ Connection-less service is analogous to the postal system.