The Influence of
Temperature on
Magnetic Behavior
Temperature can also influence the magnetic
characteristics of materials.
By raising the temperature of a solid, it will result in
an increase in the magnitude of the thermal vibrations
of atoms.
The saturation magnetization is a maximum at
0 K, at which temperature the thermal
vibrations are a minimum. With increasing
temperature, the saturation magnetization
diminishes gradually and then abruptly drops to
zero at what is called the Curie temperature Tc.
Neodymium magnets, the curie temperature is 583 K.
At Tc, the mutual spin coupling forces are completely destroyed, so
that for temperatures above Tc both ferromagnetic and
ferrimagnetic materials are paramagnetic.
Domains and Hysteresis
Any ferromagnetic or
ferrimagnetic material that
is at a temperature below
Tc is composed of small-
volume regions in which
there is a mutual
alignment in the same
direction of all magnetic
dipole moments, as
illustrated in Figure 18.11.
Adjacent domains are separated by domain boundaries or walls, across which the
direction of magnetization gradually changes
The magnitude of the M field for the entire solid is the vector
sum of the magnetizations of all the domains, each domain
contribution being weighted by its volume fraction.
Flux density B and field intensity H are not proportional for
ferromagnets and ferrimagnets. If the material is initially
unmagnetized, then B varies as a function of H.
On occasion, the slope of the
B-versus-H curve at H = 0 is
specified as a material
property that is termed the
initial permeability μi. As an H
field is applied, the domains
change shape and size by the
movement of domain
boundaries.
From saturation,as the H field is reduced by reversal of field
direction, the curve does not retrace its original path. A hysteresis
effect is produced in which the B field lags behind the applied H field
or decreases at a lower rate.
At zero H field (point R on the curve), there exists a residual B field
that is called the remanence, or remanent flux density, Br; the
material remains magnetized in the absence of an external H field.
To reduce the B field within the specimen to zero (point C on Figure
18.14), an H field of magnitude –Hc must be applied in a direction
opposite to that of the original coercivity field; Hc is called the
coercivity, or sometimes the coercive force.
The magnetic flux density (B) is increased when the
magnetic field strength (H) is increased from 0 (zero).
With an increase in the magnetic field, there is an
increase in the value of magnetism, and it finally
reaches point A, which is called the saturation point
where B is constant.
With a decrease in the value of the magnetic field,
there is a decrease in the value of the magnetism. But
if B and H are equal to zero, when a substance or
material retains some amount of magnetism, it is
called retentivity or residual magnetism.
When there is a decrease in the magnetic field towards the
negative side, magnetism also decreases. At point C, the
substance is completely demagnetized.
The force required to remove the retentivity of the material
is known as Coercive force (C).
In the opposite direction, the cycle is continued where the
saturation point is D, the retentivity point is E, and the
coercive force is F.
Due to the forward and opposite direction process, the
cycle is complete, and this cycle is called the hysteresis
loop.
MAGNETIC ANISOTROPY
The dependence of magnetic behavior on crystallographic
orientation is termed magnetic (or sometimes magnetocrystalline)
anisotropy.
This occurs when the crystal lattice of an object influences its
preferred direction for magnetization. More energy is required to
magnetize the material in a direction that is not the preferred
direction. This energy is called crystalline anisotropy energy.
For each of these materials
there is one crystallographic
direction in which
magnetization is easiest—that
is, saturation (of M) is
achieved at the lowest H field;
this is termed a direction of
easy magnetization.
SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS
Soft magnetic materials are those materials that are
easily magnetized and demagnetized.
Both ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic
materials are classified as either soft or hard
based on their hysteresis characteristics. Soft
magnetic materials are used in devices that
are subjected to alternating magnetic fields
and in which energy losses must be low; one
familiar example consists of transformer
cores.
For this reason, the relative area within the
hysteresis loop must be small; it is
characteristically thin and narrow.
The saturation field or magnetization is determined only by the
composition of the material. For example, in cubic ferrites,
substitution of a divalent metal ion such as Ni2+ for Fe2+ in FeO–
Fe2O3 will change the saturation magnetization. However,
susceptibility and coercivity (Hc), which also influence the shape
of the hysteresis curve, are sensitive to structural variables rather
than to composition.
Another property consideration for soft magnetic
materials is electrical resistivity. In addition to the
hysteresis energy losses, energy losses may result from
electrical currents that are induced in a magnetic
material by a magnetic field that varies in magnitude and
direction with time; these are called eddy currents.
Soft magnetic materials are used in transformer cores
due to their unique magnetic properties that make them
ideal for efficiently transferring electrical energy from
one circuit to another. Here are some reasons why soft
magnetic materials are preferred:
1. High Permeability: Soft magnetic materials have high permeability,
meaning they can easily become magnetized in the presence of an external
magnetic field and quickly lose their magnetization when the field is
removed. This property allows them to efficiently channel the magnetic flux
generated by the transformer's primary winding to the secondary winding.
2. Low Hysteresis Losses: Soft magnetic materials have low hysteresis losses,
meaning they dissipate minimal energy when magnetized and demagnetized
repeatedly during each cycle of AC (alternating current) operation. This
characteristic ensures that the transformer operates with high efficiency.
1. Low Eddy Current Losses: Soft magnetic materials exhibit low eddy current losses
due to their high resistivity. Eddy currents are induced currents that circulate within
the material in response to changes in the magnetic field. By using materials with
high resistivity, such as silicon steel or amorphous metals, these losses are
minimized.
2. Saturation Magnetization: Soft magnetic materials have a saturation magnetization
level that allows them to operate within their linear range without significant loss of
performance. This means they can handle varying levels of magnetic flux without
experiencing a drastic decrease in permeability.
3. Good Mechanical Properties: Soft magnetic materials often have good mechanical
properties, such as high ductility and malleability, which facilitate the manufacturing
process of transformer cores. They can be easily formed into the required shapes and
sizes for efficient magnetic flux linkage.
